Textbook writing tutorial

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Definition

This article deals with how to write a textbook, i.e. tries to formalize a few recipes. The first sections rather deal with principles.

Disclaimer: I am not a textbook writer. This is just based on summary of some literature and a superficial analysis of some textbooks - Daniel K. Schneider 16:53, 9 August 2007 (MEST).

See also (and maybe before):

• Textbook (Introduction)
• Textbook genres and examples
• Textbook research

Textbook writing and pedagogical theory

Firstly, textbook writing is related to instructional design and therefore one might look at textbooks in terms of someinstructional design models and methods.

On a prescriptive level, one might argue that authors should use at least some kind of backwards design, i.e. define what students are supposed to be able to do (e.g. solve problems) and then write the books that enables them to do so. In the same spirit, one also could argue that textbooks should respect some first principles of instruction, e.g. let's recall Merril's:

• The demonstration principle: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration
• The application principle: Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge
• The activation principle: Learning is promoted when learners activate prior knowledge or experience
• The integration principle: Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their everyday world
• The task-centered principle: Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task-centered instructional strategy

However, textbook writing is a specific activity and one should not forget that textbooks are usually just an element in a given pedagogic strategy and must be planned together with possible pedagogical use cases. E.g. Horsley and Walker (2005:265) identify a changing conception of textbooks that is related to chaning learning theories. Teaching and learning materials e.g. textbooks are used differently according to pedagogical theory:

• Transmission: Source of information, Basis of transmission, Knowledge authority, Structure of a teaching and learning program
• Constructivist: Activity and inquiry source; Provision of multiple sources for students; student knowledge ;construction Multiple sources for teacher selection.
• Sociocultural: Scaffolds learning; Enculturates students into disciplinary knowledge and practices; Source of inquiry activities; Basis of explicit teachings.

See also the related discussion around the pedagogical purpose of various kinds of learning objects.

This short discussion only tells us that textbooks can be analyzed in terms of their function and in this perspective it becomes less clear what a textbook is. E.g. Johnsen (2001) argues that “the definition of a textbook may be as general as to include other books made and published for educational purpose, or even any book used in the classroom. The textbook may also be a subset of an even broader and increasingly more commonly-used term "teaching media"”.

Daniel K. Schneider adheres to the idea that a textbook is a special genre of teaching media and that includes some kind of "built-in" pedgagogy.

Pedagogical objectives

Textbooks are written with pedagogical objectives in mind by the author. Of course, teacher and learners must construct their own representation and they sometimes re-purpose a text in ways not anticipated. E.g. a textbook, instead of for strong instruction, can be used just for reference.

For an author, there are several ways to manage objectives (each ISD model or extensions like the Kemp will tell you more). Often, advise on writing textbooks suggests to plan book chapters in terms of desired learning level outcomes. But the author should be aware that teacher's define reading assignments (textbooks as a whole or portions) in function of their pedagogical objectives. These may not be compatible with the original intent of the author.

The most important objectives concern learning objectives, e.g. what the student should master after having worked through the textbook, usually part of other class/homework activities. Again, both authors and teachers (and one could argue, learners too) should also engage in this exercise. For example, the IOWA writing assistant identifies 6 levels of emphasis based on Bloom's taxonomy of learning that we reproduce here exactly as defined in Applying your results (retrieved 20:03, 27 July 2007 (MEST)):

1. Knowledge: rote memorization, recognition, or recall of facts.
2. Comprehension: understanding what the facts mean.
3. Application: correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas.
4. Analysis: breaking down information into component parts.
5. Synthesis: combination parts to make a new whole.
6. Evaluation: judging the value or worth of information or ideas.

Depending on global objectives of the book, an author can put different emphasis on each "Bloom" level.

Objectives at book and chapter level should also be associated with activities, assessment, etc. Here is an example for Synthesis-level objective. Target students are students in educational technology. They have to prepare an e-Text about e-learning standards as an activity.

• Objective: "By the end of this section, you (as a student) will be able to design a learning object that introduces key components of e-learning standards, and in particular modeling languages.
• Activities: Make your own summary of the most important concepts you can find in articles on and then design of a course module with eXe
• Assessment: The course module
• Key Words: Design, formulate, build, invent, create, compose, generate, derive, modify, develop.

Usually in textbooks, objectives are not just used to plan the text, but they are made explicit. Objectives then can written out at the start of chapters and/or sections and activities inserted where appropriate. Hints for self-assessment can added too.

Texbook language and organization of contents

Textbooks, in language research seems to be identified as a genre (or genres). Most research focus on structual analysis of textbooks, but some research also produces knowledge that can be used for prescriptions: According to Jones (2005), textbook writers have three choices: simplification, easyfication, or the scaffolding of concept knowledge. We shall summarize some prescriptions can be derived from this article.

Simplification strategies - enhanced cohesion/coherence

• simplification of content: explain new technical terms as they arise
• simplification of form: make sure that the text has cohesive links and restores implicit relationships, e.g. when using general-specific of problem-solution progressions.
• simplification by including explanations and exemplifications
• using similar structures, i.e. syntactic repetition acts as a form of syntactic scaffolding.

Note that simplification may turn against learning. For example NcNamara et al. (1996) found that “text coherence improved readers' comprehension, but also that giving readers with sufficient background knowledge an incoherent text that forced them to infer unstated relations engaged them in compensatory processing, allowing deeper text understanding than might occur with a coherent text.”

Easification strategies - enhancing structure

The purpose easification is to “give learners an additional instructional appahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbookratus by developing a kind of "access structure" around the text without his [sic] having gone through the intervening stages of simplified materials” Bhatia cited by Jones (2005:9). Examples of such devices are:

• Provide introductory paragraph(s) to a text (or text segment)
• Provide a structural analysis ('tagging' sections) to a text (or text segment), e.g. as in Advance Organizers.
• Provide a schematic representation of a text (or text segment)
• Add annotations/explanations to the text, e.g. marginalia
• Add metadiscursive commentaries (before, in the middle, or after)
• Add questions to encourage interactions with the text

Scaffolding - providing domain knowledge

“Scaffolding in the sense intended here means the provision of a series of carefully designed pre-task exercises (or activities) which allow students to familiarize themselves with concepts of increasing complexity and to explore these concepts in terms of their reactances and interrelations.” Jones (2005:10)

Typical activities can be:

• filling in gapped texts
• complete sentences
• propositional clusters
• produce or complete tables and flow charts
• write summaries of various sorts, e.g. include critique, most things relevant, organize information, etc.

Note that these activities can be assigned by teacher, i.e. must not necessarily be part of the text itself.

The book structure and genre

Objectives and genres

Textbook genre should be adapted to clearly identified set of objectives. These should include an analysis of learning objectives and pedagogical function of the book within potential learning situations/environments. You may have to compromise here, i.e. anticipate different use cases.

In adddition, in some areas you may consider switching genres in different chapters. E.g. a text on educational multimedia animation, may include a chapter on learning theoretical backgound (e.g. cognitive load) and a introduction to flash. Clearly, such chapters are not of the same kind and may adopt different rhetorics.

See Textbook genres and examples for more details.

Structure (headings)

Often textbooks are divided into a structure like this:

Parts
 Chapters
  Sections
   Sub-sections

Parts either represent different major topics (e.g. conceptual vs. technical) or levels

Chapters contain a clearly identifiable major topics. In the US teaching university system, a textbook correpondes to a weeks's work, e.g. two classes and a homework assignment. This may be the reason why most textbooks are divided into 8-12 chapters. You need a least 8 if you want to sell the book to a "teaching professor" it seems.

Sections contain major subtopics, i.e. a independant unit of instruction. Sub-sections usually cover a concept or procedure to be learnt. For a reason I do not understand, sections are generally not numbered in American textooks. An exception is Deitel (2004).

Each heading that has subheadings must have at least to of its kind. E.g. a chapter should not have just a single section, but at least 2. In most "hard-core" textbooks, everything is usually divided by three or four, plus openers and closers. Btw. this is also how military units are organized ;)

Style of headings may be imposed by the publisher, e.g. capitalization and numbering scheme. Therefore, structuring is not only a pedagogical issue and you may have to give up pedagogical beliefs to comply with external constraints. E.g. I find it strange that navigation is so difficult in typical US textbooks and suspect that this may be the result of "artistic" guidelines.

Good topcial structure

Heading structure should have a function as conceptual organizers. The structure “reflects the amount of information you are providing, the amount of differentiation you are making within and between topics, and each topic's relative importance in you scheme of things” (Lepionka: 106).

Lepionka (2003:108) outlines a few characteristics of good topical structure that we reproduce here with different wording:

(1) Each major section (chapter, section and sub-section) should include a thesis statement, either typographically marked or in the introductory paragraph. At the chapter level, there may be an introductory section to which this applies. E.g. Alessi (2001:138) has this in the third paragraph of introduction to the "Hypermedia chapter":

Two components are necessary for a hypermedia program to be successful. First, it must have a clear and well-reasoned purpose. Second, it must be designed in accordance with that purpose ...

(2) Ideas or points are grouped into meaningful chunks of information

(3) There should be a balance of topical development and include a reasonable amount of information. E.g. for smaller concept (a sub-section level) between 1/2 and 1 1/2 pages (figures not included)

(4) Topics (sections, subsections, etc.) should lead to each other. In other words, a textbook should not be written like an Encyclopedia. (This wiki is not a textbook).

(5) These transitions should be clear, i.e. made explicit for the novices that your readers are.

(6) Each main concept should be supported, e.g. by data or examples

(7) Each topic should only be treated once and you should avoid forward pointers.

Overview of textbook chapter elements

Most textbooks are written with a sort of direct instruction model in mind. However, this is not an obligation. On the other hand, also consider that teachers engaged in other pedagogical approaches do not necessarily use textbooks, but rather a combination of manuals and "normal" academic texts.

But in any case, chapters writing should include various functional elements that will at least help the reader to understand the text. These elements also may show visually. This chapter is partly based on Lepionka (2003), chapters 8-10.

Lepionka (2003:117-118,123) distinguishes four major kinds of elements which we will summarize here, before a more detailed discussion later on.

1. Openers

Express “subject, theme, aims, topics, and organization of a chapter [... readers should] know at the outset what they are reading and why or to what end” (Lepionka 2003:117). E.g. if you follow Gagné's nine events of instruction then you should include something to motivate and gain attention (step 1), something to help the frame and organize (step 2) and something to recall prior knowledge (step 3).

Typical openers are:

• overviews (previews)
• introductions
• outlines (text, bullets or graphics)
• focus questions (knowledge and comprehension questions)
• learning goals / objectives / outcomes / competences / skills
• In addition one may use the "special features" used inside chapters, e.g. vignettes, photos, quotations, ...

2. Closers

Give students opportunities to review, reinforce, or extend their learning, i.e. help with transfer (Lepionka 2003:118)

Typical closers are:

• conclusions and summaries (may include diagrams)
• list of definitions
• reference boxes (e.g. computer instructions)
• review questions
• self-assessment (usually simple quizzes)
• small exercises
• substantial exercises and problem cases
• fill-in tables (for "learning-in-action" books) to prepare a real world task
• ideas for projects (academic or real world)
• bibliographies and links (that can be annotated)

3. Integrated Pedagogical Devices

These elements aid the learning process in several ways, e.g. by giving advice on how to understand / interpret or navigate, by engaging the learner in some reflection, by pointing out important elements, or to summarize key elements treated in previous text.

Typical elements are:

• Emphasis (bold face) of words
• Marginalia that summarize paragraphs
• Lists that highlight main points
• Summary tables and graphics
• Crossreferences that link backwards (or sometimes forwards) to important concepts
• Markers to identify embedded subjects (e.g. an "external" term used and that needs explantion)
• Study and review questions
• Pedagogical illustrations (concepts rendered graphically)
• Tips (to insure that the learner doesn't get caught in misconceptions or procedural erros)
• Reminders (e.g. make sure that something that was previously introduced is remembered)

4. Interior Feature Strands

“Intext features, whether boxes or portions of text set off through design, function pedagogically to attract attion; arrouse curiosity; increase motivation to read stimulate critical thinking; and provide opportunities for relection, application, or problem solving” (Lepionka, 2003: 118).

Typical elements are:

• Case studies
• Problem descriptions
• Debates and reflections
• Profiles (case descriptions)
• Primary sources and data
• Models

Some of these four kinds of elements will be discussed in more details below

Chapter Openers

Chapter openers should be used consistently through the text, at least in form (in case chapter genres are different). Below we present a few techniques that can be use in combination or (as seen in some textbooks) alone.

Again, it is not always obvious to differentiate between function and structure. A well written introductory text labelled "introduction" may very well cover preview, introduction and outline without making a clear distinction. But its probably best to use a paragraph for each. E.g Alessi (2001:138) which is a highly regarded book since 1985 now in its third edition, structures the introduction to the "Hypermedia chapter" includes three elements

• Topic and definition of the concept
• A list of 5 topics (truncated below)
• A chapter preview (truncated below)

Quotation:

This chapter focuses on the hypermedia technology. Programs of this methodology consist of a database of information with multiple methods of navigation and reatures ot facilitate learning. The chapter includes:

1. A brief description of hypermedia's history and origins
2. A description of the basic structure of hapyermedia and its essential characteristics
3. Description of various hypermedia formats
4. ....

Two components are necessary for a hypermedia program to be successful. First, it must have a clear and well-reasoned purpose. Second, it must be designed in accordance with that purpose ...

Below we shall examine various chapter opener elements with some more examples.

Chapter Previews

Also called chapter overviews (but there might be a slight different), these elements summarize the "big picture" and frame the reader for acquiring the details.

Here is an example from Clark (2003:97) in the chapter "Applying the Redundancy Principle"

SOME e-LEARNING describe graphics using words in both onscreen text and audio narration in which the audio repeats the text. We call this technique redundant onscreen text. In this chapter, we summarize empirical evidence that graphics explained by audio alone rather that graphics explained by audio and redunant onscreen text gets better learning results. [...four lines cut ...]

Previews also act as self-monitoring device, i.e. it will you as an author whether you are able to understand what you wrote ...

Introductions

Introductions both at chapter and section level rather focus on the problem, i.e. try to convey to learner why the topic is important and in which context this knowledge is relevant. It also can link to previous chapters. E.g. the editors introduction to David Merrils' chapter on "First Principles of Instruction" (Reiser, 2006:62) starts like this:

In section 2 of this book, several of the authors point to differences in desing practices between positivists (objectivists) and relativists (constructionists). In this chapter, David Merrril takes a different tack. Having spent several years studying a number of different instructional design theories and models, including a variety of positivist and constructivist approaches, he concludes that these different theories and modesl do share common instructional pinciples, which he labels First Principles of Instruction.

This text states a goals or an achievment, but it does not (like in a chapter preview) summarize these first principles of instruction

Here is another example from Deitel (2004:141). The Introduction is a numbered section and comes right after the outline (see below).

In Chapters 4 and 5, we introduced the Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML) for marking up information. In this chapter, we shift our focus to fomatting and presenting information. To do this, we use a W3C technology called Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) that allows document authors to specify the presentation of elements on a Web page (e.g., fonts, speacing, margins, etc.) separately from the structure of the document (section headers, body text, links, etc.). this separation of structure from presentation simplifies maintaining an modifying a document's layout.

Again, this introduction, makes a link and provides motivation for reading on.

Chapter outlines

Chapter outlines either support or integrate (replace) the function of Preview and Introduction. E.g. Morsund (2000:35) in the "the case for PBL" chapter uses a rather short multi-purpose introduction:

PBL is a versatile approache to instruction that can readily be used in conjunction with other approaches. A huge number of adrticles have been written aboutPBL. Most, however, are specific examples and testimonials rather than carefully conducted research studies.

This chapter discusses a number of different types of arguments that support the use of PBL and IT-assited PBL in the classroom. In total, they present a strong case for increased use ofPBL in K-12 education.

Driscoll (2005) starts chapter 6 "Simulations" with a quote from two researchers and then outlines the chapter as follows:

In This Chapter
In this chapter, we will

• Define the term simulation
• Discuss the factors that have been obstacles to the adoption of simulations as and instructional strategy
• Describe the benefits and limitations of simulations
• Describe nine types of simulations to add to your portfolio of simulation techniques and explain hwo these types of simulation differ
• Provide a portfolio of examples of simulation

In addition to an introductory text, one may also just display the chapter's internal table of content. It may replace the outline 'if' the section titles are well chosen.

E.g. Deitel (2004: 141) after presenting Objectives and funny quotes on page one presents an outline of the 12 sections:

Outline

---

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Inline Styles
6.3 Embedded Style Sheets

...

This is followed by an introduction.

Learning objectives

Learning objectives can be intervoven with any of the above, but in a "hard-core" textbook they are usually stated in box à-part in list form.

E.g. Carey (2007:227) in the "Working with Cascading Style Sheets" Tutorial (chapter) defines objectives for each of the three Sessions (sections) in a sidebox next to the case problem that opens the chapter.

Session 5.1

• Understand the history and theory of CSS
• Write selectors for specific XML elements
• Set the display style for elements
• Size and position elements on a rendered page

...

Focus questions

Focus questions or in terms of Reiser (2007:viii) "knowledge and comprehension questions “at the start of each chapter require students to identify the key ideas presented and demonstrate their understanding of those ideas”

There are five focus questions attached to David Merrils' chapter on "First Principles of Instruction" (Reiser, 2006:62) and rendered in a smaller left-side column of the first chapter page. We list the two first ones:

1. In your own words, briefly describe each of the five first principles of instruction discussed in this chapter.
2. Merril briefly indicates why each of the first principles is important. Beiefly summarize his position regarding the importance of each principle and the indicate, for each principle, whether you agree or disagree withis point of view. Explain why you feel this way.

Typographic Design

Pedagogical discourse should be reflected in layout.

Links

• Richard Felder's resources in science and engineering education.
• What I've Learned about Writing Economics by Hal R. Varian, University of California, Berkeley
• Writing Guidelines for Engine (Eco)ering and Science Students by Michael Alley
• Getting Started Creating A Textbook by David Rees (goals and process). (also here).
• (Instructional literature , Development of Educational Material, CARNet, retrieved 19:57, 8 August 2007 (MEST)).

References

For research-related questions, see textbook research

Practical Advise

• Alley, M. 1996 The Craft of Scientific Writing (3rd Ed.). Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. ISBN 0-387-94766-3

• Ben-Ari, M., Walker, H. M., Redvers-Mutton, G., and Mansfield, K. 2002. Writing a textbook. In Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference on innovation and Technology The Textbook and after... Pierre Moeglinin Computer Science Education (Aarhus, Denmark, June 24 - 28, 2002). ITiCSE '02. ACM Press, New York, NY, 94-95. DOI 10.1145/544414.544444 (Summary of a panel discussion).

• Dale, N., Mercer, R., Koffman, E., and Savitch, W. 2001. Writing a textbook: walking the gauntlet. SIGCSE Bull. 33, 1 (Mar. 2001), 408-409. Abstract (summary of a panel discussion)

• Forbes, David J., (1996), Make History Textbook Writing "A Puzzlement", The History Teacher. Vol. 29, No. 4 (Aug., 1996), pp. 455-461. JSTOR Bitmap/POF

• Hatch, Mary Jo (2007). Writing From Teaching: A Textbook Writer's Tale, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 31, No. 3, 405-412 (2007). DOI 10.1177/1052562906298443

• Jones, Alan (2005) Conceptual Development in Technical and Textbook Writing: A Challenge for L1 and L2 Student Readers, Proceedings of the International Professional Communication Conference, Limerick, Ireland, 12-15 July, 2005. PDF - Abstract

• Lepionka, Mary Ellen (2003), Writing and Developing Your College Textbook, ISBN 0-9728164-0-2. (This practical book gets good reviews. I bought it and find it useful - Daniel K. Schneider)

• Lepionka, Mary Ellen (2005), Writing and Developing College Textbook Supplements ISBN 0-9728164-1-0

• Silv (Eco)erman, Franklin H. (2004), Self-Publishing Textbooks and Instructional Materials, ISBN 0-9728164-3-7

• Thirlway, M. 1994 Writing Software Manuals: a Practical Guide. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-138801-0

• Ranking, Elizabeth, The Work of Writing: Insights and Strategies for Academics and Professionals, Wiley, ISBN: 978-0-7879-5679-0

Instructional objectives

See also: instructional design and instructional design method in particular.

• Felder, Richard M. and Rebecca Brent (1997). Objectively Speaking, Chemical Engineering Education, 31(3), 178-179 (1997). HTML reprint

• Gronlund, N.E. (1991)- How to write and use instructional objectives (4th ed.) New York, Macmillan.

Examples of textbooks

• Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon, ISBN 0-205-27691-1.

• Clark, Ruth Colvin and Richard E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning, Pfeiffer, ISBN 0787960519

• Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XML, Second Edition, Comprehensive. ISBN 1418860646, 655 pages

• Deitel, Harvey M., Paul J. Deitel, Andrew B. Goldberg, (2004) Internet & World Wide Web How to Program (3rd Edition). Prentice Hall; 3 edition, ISBN 0131450913

• Dépelteau, François (2000), a démarche d'une recherche en sciences humaines, De Boeck ISBN-10 2804135268

• Driscoll, M., Carliner, S. (2005) Advanced Web-Based Training : Adapting Real World Strategies in Your Online Learning, Pfeiffer. ISBN 0787969796

• Morsund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN 1-56484-196-0

• Reiser Robert A. and John V. Dempsey (eds). (2006). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131708058

• Veer, E.A. Vander and Chris Grover (2007). Flash CS3: The Missing Manual. ISBN 0596510446