Motivation

Draft

Definition

See also self-efficacy theory, flow theory

Drive theory

Drieve theories are behaviorist in nature and explain behavior as as response to psychological and social needs.

Cognitivist / human information processing

Warr describes motivation as a cognitive process that concerns future planned actions and that can be based on a set of reasons:

According to Konrad (2005) argues that in an educational context we should complete sociological, psychological and interactional models with a decision making approach where “learners are seen as decision makers, who more or less consciously analyse their past experiences, current lifeand work situation, and future expectations, and base their decisions to participate or not on these complex elements which form the motivation structure.” (Konrad, 2005:7).

Model	Sociological	Psychological	Interactionist	Modern
Explanations sought from	External causes	Internal causes	Interaction of causes	Individual decision making
Key elements	Work, society, social class, opportunities, obstacles	Motives, traits, personality, interests	Socialisation, experiences, felt needs, relevance, expectancy	Images, values, feelings, stories
References	Lehtonen & Tuomisto 1972; Rinne & al. 1992	Boshier 1973; Garrison 1987	Rubenson 1979; Pintrich & Ruohotie 2000	Manninen 2004; Manninen & al. 2004

In any case, DSchneider believes that motivation has to be conceived as multi-dimensions phenomenon (a construct) influenced by various variables such as:

• Needs and desires
• Perceived utility of an activity. Does the learner think that he could use outcomes ?
• Achievement: did the learner encounter positive experiences in the past, project positive ones in the future (e.g. see self-efficacy theory)
• Recognition by others
• Task: Is the task itself interesting.

Motivation in education

Motivation always has been a key variable in education: "Donnez à l'enfant le désir d'apprendre et... toute méthode lui sera bonne" (Rousseau dans l'Emile en 1762) According to Konrad (2005) “The general definition of 'motivation to learn' is 'an individual's desire to work towards a learning goal.' Ruohotie (2000:8)” but such definitions are not very operational and the instructional designer should rely on some model of motivation structure.

Motivation in vocational training

In a large-scale empirical study, Konrad (2005) studied the learning motivations of lower qualified workers.

His learning motivation scale was based on the following concepts (categories). Values, i.e Alpha, Neutral, Beta refer to Dynamic concept analysis (Kontinen, 2002).

Concept	Alfa	Neutral	Beta
Individual characteristics:	Supportive	Neutral	Unsupportive
Training format:	Attractive	Neutral	Unattractive
Work complexity:	Complex	Neutral	Simple
Past learning experiences:	Positive	Neutral	Negative
Information & opportunity:	Easily available	Neutral	Unavailable
Attitudes & values:	Positive	Neutral	Negative
Motivation	High	Medium	Low
Current work & future expectations:	Motivating	Neutral	Demotivating
Support & incentives:	Easily available	Neutral	Unavailable
Expectancy & Valence:	Positive	Neutral	Negative

Results let to a typology of motivation according to 2 dimensions: Simple work/complex work situation and low/high motivation.

1. Climbers: Positive attitude towards training. Key motivation is advancement. There is support from the company.
2. Developers: Similar as climbers, but key motivation is to develop skills needed in current job. Past experiences with learning has been positive.
3. Drop-outs: Attitudes towards training are neutral (or unnessary). Work is simple and there is no possibility of advancement. This concerns most employees.
4. Refusers: Negative attitudes about training. Employees perform complex work and there is no possibility of advancement and support from the company

Instructional design model

• ARCS
• Constructivist emotionally-oriented model

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation is linked to emotions, but emotions an related emotional design of instruction are yet another category of interest: Here is a citation from Asleitner (2000:169): "It is well known in the field of basic and applied research on education and psychology that cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes are related to the world in different ways. Cognitive processes concern the acquisition and representation of knowledge and have a representative relation to the world of objects and facts. Motivational processes refer to goal states of the organism and have an actional relation to the world. Emotional processes are based on the acceptance or rejection of objects and facts and have an evaluational relation to the world (Kuhl, 1986)"

• FEASP: "According to the F(ear)E(nvy)A(nger)S(ympathy)P(leasure)-approach for designing positive feeling instruction, the instructional designer has to analyze emotional problems before and during instruction (Astleitner, 2000: 175).

References

• Astleitner, Hermann, Designing Emotionally Sound Instruction: The FEASP-Approach, Instructional Science 28 (3): 169-198, May 2000 [ http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1023/A:1003893915778]

• J. Keller, Motivational Design of Instruction, in C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 383-434, 1983.

• J. Keller and T. Kopp, An Application of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design, in C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories in Action, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 289-320, 1987.

• Kontiainen, S. (ed.) 2002. Dynamic Concept Analysis (DCA). Integrating Information in Conceptual Models. University of Helsinki, Department of Education.

• Korman A K , J H Greenhaus, and I J Badin, Personnel Attitudes and Motivation, Annual Review of Psychology Vol. 28: 175-196 [ Abstract]

• Kuhl, J. (1986). Motivation and information. In R.M. Sorrentino & E.T. Higgins, eds, Handbook of Motivation and Cognition, pp. 404-434. Chichester: Wiley

• Lens, Willy & Antoine Gailly, Extension of Future Time Perspective in Motivational Goals of Different Age Groups, International Journal of Behavioral Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1-17 (1980) DOI: 10.1177/016502548000300102 Abstract / PDF (Access restricted)

• Nuttin, J., 1980. Theorie de la motivation humaine: du besoin au projet d'action. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

• T. W. Malone and M. R. Lepper, Making Learning Fun: A Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivation for Learning, in Aptitude, Learning and instruction, 3, R. E. Snow and M. J. Farr (eds.), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 223-253, 1987.

To sort out

Konrad, John (2005), PDF, retrieved 14:13, 7 September 2006 (MEST).