Hypertext

Definition

• A hypertext is a non-linear text that connects various elements (nodes, pages) through links.

• From the Wikipedia: “In computing, hypertext is a user interface paradigm for displaying documents which, according to an early definition (Nelson 1970), "branch or perform on request." The most frequently discussed form of hypertext document contains automated cross-references to other documents called hyperlinks. Selecting a hyperlink causes the computer to load and display the linked document.”

• Hypertext is not just HTML.

• Hypertext systems allow users to author, edit and follow links between different bodies of text. Hypermedia systems, are similar to hypertext systems, except that the user can use other forms of media as well.

Link types

Semantic and retorical principles

Harrison's (2002) paper explores the semantic and rhetorical principles underlying link development and proposes a systematic, comprehensive classification of link types that would be of use to researchers and Web production teams:

• Authorizing: Describes an organization's legal, formal policies, contact information, etc. that authenticate the site and its content.
• Commenting: Provides opinion about the site and/or its content.
• Enhancing: Provides more factual information about site content by offering greater detail or painting the "bigger picture."
• Exemplifying: Provides a specific example of content within a broader category.
• Mode-Changing: Moves users from the reading mode to one that requires a different kind of activity.
• Referencing/Citing: Provides information that "informs" or supplements the site's content.
• Self-Selecting: Allows users to narrow a search by making choices based on their age, sex, geographical location, life situation, personal interests, and so on ([1], retrieved 15:18, 6 November 2006 (MET))

A technical classification of links

In the history of hypertext we can distinguish "minimal" technology such as HTML and systems that provide a richer set of link types.

See also: The Xlink standard.

Hypertext in education

• “Hypertext/hypermedia is a field of study which comes with a number of issues, which we will explore, for example:what it means to learn in a nonlinear fashion and the related implications for designing online learning and learning from the current structure of the Web: learner control, navigational problems, cognitive overload, issues of type of structure and how much structure, and so on. Hypertext has two main features: nonlinearity and changeability. That is, the user may follow someone else's links, or s/he may design her own.These two different purposes have important learning consequences.” (Diane McGrath, retrieved 15:18, 6 November 2006 (MET)).

Instructionalist designs

In main-stream instructional design, hypertext is usually a component to build learning activities that include strong sequencing constraints (at least at module level) and MCQ's. Some very general design guidelines for more open hypertexts usually include:

• clear structure
• navigational transparency
• consistency

See e-learning, mastery learning, etc.

Constructivist designs

Hypertext requires the reader to be an active participant in the evolution of the learning path and therefore are of interest to various constructivist designs.

• Cognitive flexibility theory that focuses on the nature of learning in complex and ill-structured domains and builds on top of cognitivist thinking shows interest for hypertext technology.

• Exploratory learning designs

Constructionist designs

• Students write hypertext (e.g. Lohr et. al, 1995).
• See writing-to-learn

Dumb designs

• Why do we add Hypertext to the Category:Instructional design models ? Because there are people who believe that one can learn by surfing through hypertext. It's the constructivist "spray and pray" equivalent to the "page turning" design idea popular with some LMS users ....

History

This is a very incomplete time-line:

1. 1945: V. Bush, As We May Think
2. 1965: Ted Nelson invents the word "Hypertext"
3. 1968: Engelbart demoes "HyperMedia" over the network
4. 1981: Start of Ted Nelson's Xanadu project which never managed to take off, however there finally was an available implementation in 1999 (?)
5. 1992 First commercial hypertext system by Eastgate (still sold as Storyspace)
6. 1989: Tim Berners-Lee builds the first prototype of the WWW and invents HTML, formally as a SGML application.
7. 1991: Gopher (Menu-based navigation through files and services on the Internet)
8. 1992-1993: The WWW starts spreading
9. 1992 / 1997 Hytime is a complex SGML application. Hytime is an ISO standard that has rarely been used, but it had a big influence on the definition of more recent Web Standards like XLink.
10. Early 90' (?) Adaptive hypertexts
11. 1995 Ward Cunningham invented the first Wiki. Wikis are probably the only popular CMSs that are compatible with the Hypertext concept.

(To do: add more recent developments + exotic hypertexts)

Examples

There are not many good hypertext examples on the Internet. Some exceptions are:

Encyclopedias

• The Wikipedia

Concept mapped hypertexts

• Beat's Biblionetz

(Simple) hypertext books

• The Theory into Practise DataBase (TIP)

Some social software

• E.g. citation indexes

Some visualization software

Standards

• Internet resource locators (URLs, URNs)
• HTML / XHTML and associated linking mechanisms (e.g. the "A" tag and the "href" attribute)
• XML Linking standards like XLink and associated mechanisms to point to documents and parts of documents (XPointer and XPath)
• Topic Maps
• Some languages based on RDF, e.g. ontology languages like OWL or social software standards like FOAF.
• HyTime
• Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines

Software and technology

• Some gaming engines
• Wikis
• Web-based solutions (also need a Wikipedia:HTTP Server):
  • Wikipedia:HTML clients
  • Wikipedia:XML clients that support Wikipedia:XLink
  • Wikipedia:SVG clients
• Storyspace (quote: "is widely considered the tool of choice for hypertext writers."
• Interactive fiction engines and MUDs/MOOs
• Multimedia authoring system, such as ToolBook and Authorware or earlier systems like HyperCard
• Some concept maps, e.g. the ones that are used to visualize information spaces in search engines like Kartoo, wikis, etc.

References

• Bush,V. As We May Think, originally published in Atlantic Monthly, July 1995.

• Cicconi, Sergio (1999). ""Hypertextuality"". Mediapolis. Ed. Sam Inkinen. Berlino & New York: De Gruyter.: 21-43. HTML

• Conklin, J. Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey, IEEE Computer, vol. 1(9), pp. 17-40, September 1987.

• Cunningham, Patricia, S. Teacher Knowledge, Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Case-Based Learning and Teacher Education, (on-line) Proceedings of the Second International Technological Directions in Music Learning Conference, http://music.utsa.edu/tdml/conf-II/II-Cunningham.htmlM. Jacobson, C. Maouri, P. Mishra, C. Kolar, Learning with Hypertext Learning Environments: Theory, Design and Research, in Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4, 1995, pp. 321-364.

• Dillon, Andrew and Ralph Gabbard, Hypermedia as an Educational Technology: A Review of the Quantitative Research Literature on Learner Comprehension, Control, and Style, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 68, No. 3. (Autumn, 1998), pp. 322-349. Abstract/HTML/PDF

• Harrison, Claire (2002). Hypertext Links: Whither Thou Goest, and Why, First Monday, volume 7, number 10 (October 2002), HTML

• M. Jacobson, R. Spiro, Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex knowledge: an empirical investigation, in Journal of Educational Computing Research, vol. 12, 1995, pp. 301-333.

• D. Jonassen, S. Wang, Acquiring structural knowledge from semantically structured hypertext, in Journal of Computer-Based-Instruction, 20, 1993, pp. 1-8.

• E. Shin, D. Schallert, W. Savenye, Effects of learner control, advisment, and prior knowledge on young students learning in a hypertext environment, in Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 42, 1994, pp. 33-46.

• Landow, G.P. (1992). Hypertext: The convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

• Lohr,Linda, Ross,Steven, Morrison,Gary, (1995), Using a hypertext environment for teaching process writing: An evaluation study of three student groups, Educational Technology Research and Development, 43, 2, 6/18/1995, Pages 33-51, DOI 10.1007/BF02300471 (Access restricted)

• Romiszowski, A. J., & Cheng, E. (1992). “Hypertext’s contribution to computer-mediated communication: in search of an instructional model.” In M. Giardina (Ed.), Interactive multimedia learning environments. Springer, Berlin.

• Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In V. Patel (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [2]

• M. Wenger, D. Payne, Comprehension and retention of nonlinear text: considerations of working memory and material-appropriate processing, in American Journal of Psychology, 109, 1996, pp. 93-130.

Links

• Martin Ryder's collection of hypertext links

• ACM Hypertext 2006 conference