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'''This is not even a rough draft as of Dec 2011'''. A few questions:
'''This is not even a rough draft as of Dec 2011'''. A few questions:
* Is "digital literacy" different from computer literacy or is part of it ?
* In what respect is "computer literacy" part of "digital literacy" ?
* What computer literacy skills do learners and teachers need to learn/teach better ?
* What computer literacy skills do learners and teachers need to learn/teach better ?
* What computer literacy skills do all (most) people need ?
* What computer literacy skills do all (most) people need ?
* What computer literacy skills do people in in ICT-intensive jobs need ?
* What computer literacy skills do people in in ICT-intensive jobs need ?
* What computer literacy skills do people have today, in particular the younger generation.
* What computer literacy skills do people have today, in particular the younger generation.
* What is needed for both creative and efficient e-learning. Is there an e-learning literacy ?  
* What is needed for both creative and efficient e-learning. Is there an [[e-learning literacy]] ?  


== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
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[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_literacy Wikipedia], retrieved nov. 2011, defines '''computer literacy''' as {{quotationbox|the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering levels from elementary use to programming and advanced problem solving. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and other applications that are associated with computers. Another valuable component of computer literacy is knowing how computers work and operate. Having basic computer skills is a significant asset in the developed countries.}}
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_literacy Wikipedia], retrieved nov. 2011, defines '''computer literacy''' as {{quotationbox|the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering levels from elementary use to programming and advanced problem solving. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and other applications that are associated with computers. Another valuable component of computer literacy is knowing how computers work and operate. Having basic computer skills is a significant asset in the developed countries.}}


Digital literacy is an associated concept. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_literacy Wikipedia] defines '''Digital literacy''' as {{quotationbox|the ability to locate, organize, understand, evaluate, and analyze information using digital technology. It involves a working knowledge of current high-technology, and an understanding of how it can be used. Further, digital literacy involves a consciousness of the technological forces that affect culture and human behavior. [1] Digitally literate people can communicate and work more efficiently, especially with those who possess the same knowledge and skills. Research around digital literacy is concerned with wider aspects associated with learning how to effectively find, use, summarize, evaluate, create, and communicate information while using digital technologies, not just being literate at using a computer. Digital literacy encompasses all digital devices, such as computer hardware, software (particularly those used most frequently by businesses), the Internet, and cell phones. A person using these skills to interact with society may be called a digital citizen.}} (retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET))
{{quotation|Computer literacy is an understanding of the concepts, terminology and operations that relate to general computer use. It is the essential knowledge needed to function independently with a computer. This functionality includes being able to solve and avoid problems, adapt to new situations, keep information organized and communicate effectively with other computer literate people.}} ([http://computerliteracyusa.web.officelive.com/default.aspx Computer Literacy USA], retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).


{{quotation|Computer literacy is an understanding of the concepts, terminology and operations that relate to general computer use. It is the essential knowledge needed to function independently with a computer. This functionality includes being able to solve and avoid problems, adapt to new situations, keep information organized and communicate effectively with other computer literate people.}} ([http://computerliteracyusa.web.officelive.com/default.aspx Computer Literacy USA], retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
Computer literacy (being able to use computers and the Internet) can be understood of being different from [[informatics literacy]] (understand computer science principles and programming concepts). [[Digital literacy]] is an associated concept, i.e. somewhat represents a union of computer literacy with [[information literacy]]


See also:
See also:
* [[Digital literacy]] and [[information literacy]]
* [[Procedural literacy]]
* [[Procedural literacy]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* [[ICT in society]]
* [[ICT in society]]
* [[Informatics literacy]]


== Computer literacy definitions ==
== Computer literacy definitions ==
Sometimes, computer literacy is understood in a very broad sense (including digital, information, social networking literacies), but we will try to discuss and summarize more narrow definitions here:


=== Beyer's technology ladder ===
=== Beyer's technology ladder ===
Line 43: Line 47:


In this ladder, '''digital divide''' only concerns '''level 1''', i.e. skills that most kids somewhat do acquire in most western countries and that are not enough in order to be operational in an ICT rich profession or field of study. {{quotation|Once basic literacy has been achieved, users need to be exposed to a variety of packages in order to become competent users. Beyond that is the mastery of the tools where ICT constitutes the main part of their future professions. The ultimate goal is the utilization of the power of ICTs to conceptualize and realize their creative talents in the form of innovations (and ultimately patents).}} (Beyers and Koorbanally, 2009: 3).
In this ladder, '''digital divide''' only concerns '''level 1''', i.e. skills that most kids somewhat do acquire in most western countries and that are not enough in order to be operational in an ICT rich profession or field of study. {{quotation|Once basic literacy has been achieved, users need to be exposed to a variety of packages in order to become competent users. Beyond that is the mastery of the tools where ICT constitutes the main part of their future professions. The ultimate goal is the utilization of the power of ICTs to conceptualize and realize their creative talents in the form of innovations (and ultimately patents).}} (Beyers and Koorbanally, 2009: 3).
=== The KnowIt Goals ===
The University of Colorado at Boulder defines ICT skills with a [http://www.colorado.edu/knowit/goals.html list of goals] that describes what students should be able to achieve with IT.
:GOAL 1: Students will be able to recognize, articulate, and characterize what they need to know as they approach a problem, project, writing assignment or other research task.
:GOAL 2: Students will be able to access needed information effectively and efficiently independent of form or format.
:GOAL 3: Students will be able to evaluate information and information sources critically.
:GOAL 4: Students will be able to use information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose as well as to retain selected information as part of their accumulated knowledge.
:GOAL 5: Students will be able to manage and organize information effectively and efficiently using information technologies.
:GOAL 6: Students will be able to produce and create structured electronic documents that successfully express their ideas for a specific audience and situation.
:GOAL 7: Students will be able to manipulate and use qualitative and quantitative data and aural and visual information using information technologies.
:GOAL 8: Students will be able to collaborate appropriately and effectively using information technologies.
:GOAL 9: Students will be able to successfully communicate produced content using information technologies.
:GOAL 10: Students will be able to participate as informed members of the academy who understand major legal, economic, social, ethical, privacy, and security issues related to information technologies.
Although these goals are then further expanded on the web site, there are not precise definitions of technical skills to be acquired. For example Goal 7 (data analysis skills) are defined as:
# Recognize when qualitative and/or quantitative data is needed.
# Select the appropriate application to manipulate data (ex. spreadsheets, statistical packages).
# Navigate and use applications effectively.
# Evaluate derived data using application effectively.
# Generate reports as appropriate.
# Recognize when visual and aural information is needed.
# Obtain, manipulate and insert visual and aural information (download, upload, change format, resize, crop, etc.) into personal documents using selected applications.
# Understand use of images and use appropriately in produced information.
In other words, this kind of list rather reflects the ''kind'' of technical knowledge that a student should seek out.


=== CL-USA definition ===
=== CL-USA definition ===
Line 100: Line 67:


The difference made by this organization between doing and knowing is interesting. However it is a bit misleading. ''Doing'' above refers to procedural surface knowledge and ''knowing'' to more conceptual knowledge. However, ''knowing'' the latter for real also means being able to do (e.g. configure a network, create a link with an URL, install a server, etc.)
The difference made by this organization between doing and knowing is interesting. However it is a bit misleading. ''Doing'' above refers to procedural surface knowledge and ''knowing'' to more conceptual knowledge. However, ''knowing'' the latter for real also means being able to do (e.g. configure a network, create a link with an URL, install a server, etc.)
== Digital literacy of the younger generation ==
Selwyn (2009:Abstract) {{quotation|provides a comprehensive review of the recent published literatures on young people and digital technology in information sciences, education studies and media/communication studies. The findings show that young people's engagements with digital technologies are varied and often unspectacular – in stark contrast to popular portrayals of the digital native. As such, the paper highlights a misplaced technological and biological determinism that underpins current portrayals of children, young people and digital technology.}}
Digital literacy may be highly influenced by acceptance of technology. Edward (2010) in a study about ''Student attitudes towards and use of ICT in course study, work and social activity'' concludes that {{quotation|Usefulness and Ease of Use are key aspects of students' attitudes towards technology in all areas of their lives, but ICT is perceived most positively in the work context. The work context also appears as an important driver for technology use in the other two areas of use. There are implications for higher education practitioners in terms of decision making about whether and how to require students to use particular technologies for course study. The evidence suggests that of the various factors that influence use of and perceptions about ICT, its perceived functionality plays a dominant role. Practitioners should not assume that students share their view of what is functional or that a technology does deliver its promised functionality in a particular study context.}}


== Detailed lists of ICT skills ==
== Detailed lists of ICT skills ==
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* [http://www.ecdl.org/ ECDL Foundation]
* [http://www.ecdl.org/ ECDL Foundation]
* [http://computerliteracyusa.web.officelive.com/ Computer Literacy USA] (private)
* [http://computerliteracyusa.web.officelive.com/ Computer Literacy USA] (private)
; Official initiatives
* [https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2016/01/30/computer-science-all Computer Science For All] Obama administration initiative.


; University pages
; University pages
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; Computer literacy tutorials online
; Computer literacy tutorials online
* [http://www.jegsworks.com/lessons/index.html Jan's Illustrated computer literacy 101]
* [http://www.jegsworks.com/lessons/index.html Jan's Illustrated computer literacy 101]
; Guides to literacy teaching
* [http://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/enhancing-the-digital-student-experience/support-students-and-staff Support students and staff to work successfully with digital technologies], Jisc, March 2015.


; Online discussion
; Online discussion
* [http://slashdot.org/story/06/05/24/0125200/what-should-one-know-to-be-truly-computer-literate Slashdot May 2006]
* [http://slashdot.org/story/06/05/24/0125200/what-should-one-know-to-be-truly-computer-literate Slashdot May 2006]
; Blog articles
* [http://www.salon.com/2006/09/14/basic_2/ Why Johnny can’t code], by David Brin, Salon,  Sep 14, 2006. Quote: {{quotation|Microsoft and Apple and all the big-time education-computerizing reformers of the MIT Media Lab are failing, miserably. For all of their high-flown education initiatives (like the “$100 laptop”), they seem bent on providing information consumption devices, not tools that teach creative thinking and technological mastery. }}


== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
Line 246: Line 216:


* Cole, M. (2009). Using Wiki technology to support student engagement: Lessons from the trenches. Computers & Education, 52 (1), 141-146.  
* Cole, M. (2009). Using Wiki technology to support student engagement: Lessons from the trenches. Computers & Education, 52 (1), 141-146.  
* Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. (1995). Computer Self-Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test. MIS Quarterly, 19(2), 189-211.


* diSessa, A. (2001), Changing Minds: Computers, Learning, and Literacy. The MIT Press.  
* diSessa, A. (2001), Changing Minds: Computers, Learning, and Literacy. The MIT Press.  
Line 270: Line 242:


* Luehrmann, Arthur. "Computer Literacy--What Should It Be?" The Mathematics Teacher vol 74 no 9, Dec 1981.  
* Luehrmann, Arthur. "Computer Literacy--What Should It Be?" The Mathematics Teacher vol 74 no 9, Dec 1981.  
* Martin, A. (2008). Digital literacy and the ‘digital society’. Digital literacies: Concepts, policies and practices, 30, 151-176.


* Prensky, Marc, 2001 "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.", On the Horizon 9:1-6. [http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf PDF part I reprint],  
* Prensky, Marc, 2001 "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.", On the Horizon 9:1-6. [http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf PDF part I reprint],  
Line 289: Line 263:
* Wolfe, Barbara B. "Achieving Computer Literacy." SIGUCCS Newsletter. Summer 1998. ACM. pp. 29-32.
* Wolfe, Barbara B. "Achieving Computer Literacy." SIGUCCS Newsletter. Summer 1998. ACM. pp. 29-32.


[[Category: ICT in society]]
 
[[Category: Computer literacy]]
[[Category: Innovation and change]]
[[Category: Innovation and change]]
[[fr:Natifs_numériques]]
[[fr:Natifs_numériques]]

Latest revision as of 17:03, 14 August 2017

Draft

This is not even a rough draft as of Dec 2011. A few questions:

  • In what respect is "computer literacy" part of "digital literacy" ?
  • What computer literacy skills do learners and teachers need to learn/teach better ?
  • What computer literacy skills do all (most) people need ?
  • What computer literacy skills do people in in ICT-intensive jobs need ?
  • What computer literacy skills do people have today, in particular the younger generation.
  • What is needed for both creative and efficient e-learning. Is there an e-learning literacy ?

Introduction

Wikipedia, retrieved nov. 2011, defines computer literacy as

the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering levels from elementary use to programming and advanced problem solving. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and other applications that are associated with computers. Another valuable component of computer literacy is knowing how computers work and operate. Having basic computer skills is a significant asset in the developed countries.

“Computer literacy is an understanding of the concepts, terminology and operations that relate to general computer use. It is the essential knowledge needed to function independently with a computer. This functionality includes being able to solve and avoid problems, adapt to new situations, keep information organized and communicate effectively with other computer literate people.” (Computer Literacy USA, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).

Computer literacy (being able to use computers and the Internet) can be understood of being different from informatics literacy (understand computer science principles and programming concepts). Digital literacy is an associated concept, i.e. somewhat represents a union of computer literacy with information literacy

See also:

Computer literacy definitions

Sometimes, computer literacy is understood in a very broad sense (including digital, information, social networking literacies), but we will try to discuss and summarize more narrow definitions here:

Beyer's technology ladder

Definitions of what computer literacy should be probably vary quite a lot. However, most definitions seem to distinguish between some kind of very basic literacy and some kind of "functional" literacy, i.e. being able to use ICT efficiently in a given domain.

Beyers and Koorbanally(2009) define a double ICT/technological ladder:

The Technological ladder (Beyers, 2008)
Level School and business focus Technology in society
4 ICT enabled innovator Technology enabled innovator
3 ICT practitioner Technology practitioner
2 ICT user (applications) Technology user
1 Basic ICT literacy Technology literacy

In this ladder, digital divide only concerns level 1, i.e. skills that most kids somewhat do acquire in most western countries and that are not enough in order to be operational in an ICT rich profession or field of study. “Once basic literacy has been achieved, users need to be exposed to a variety of packages in order to become competent users. Beyond that is the mastery of the tools where ICT constitutes the main part of their future professions. The ultimate goal is the utilization of the power of ICTs to conceptualize and realize their creative talents in the form of innovations (and ultimately patents).” (Beyers and Koorbanally, 2009: 3).

CL-USA definition

The CL-USA definition (a private organization), retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET), emphasizes that computer literacy implies both being able to do and knowing. The standards are not open to the public, but we can cite an example that illustrates the difference between doing and knowing.


4)Using the Internet (and Other Networks): What we must be able to DO:

  • Send/receive e-mail and attachments
  • Browse the web
  • Upload and download files
  • Deal with security issues

What we must KNOW:

  • How networks are configured (in a general sense)
  • What an IP address is
  • What a URL is
  • What a server and client are
  • How information is routed through a network

The difference made by this organization between doing and knowing is interesting. However it is a bit misleading. Doing above refers to procedural surface knowledge and knowing to more conceptual knowledge. However, knowing the latter for real also means being able to do (e.g. configure a network, create a link with an URL, install a server, etc.)

Detailed lists of ICT skills

Basic technical ICT skills

Basic hardware
  • Turn on and off (properly)
  • Insert external memory devices (CD-Rom, USB, SD cards, etc.) Be able to find conntectors if missing (e.g. on iPad things).
  • Turn on/off WiFi
  • Plugin in Ethernet cable and electricity.
  • Difference between volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (disk) memory
  • Add/remove a card or a harddrive
The System
  • Be able to distinguish special characters like | or / or \ or # and be able to find them on the keyboard (on European keyboards, in particular Macs, this not obvious)
  • Be able to display file extensions (Windows)
  • Create new file associations (Windows/Mac)
  • Organize files in folders
  • Manipulate files: move, delete, change permissions
  • Backups
  • Updating (including setting preferences for automatic/manual updates)
  • Install software on a PC or a mobile device
Security
  • Web page contents, web formats like PDF or Flash, and downloads.
  • Executable files
  • Viruses
  • Understand firewalls and how to enable/disable
  • Manage passwords in a reasonable way
Interaction with common GUI's
  • Shortcuts: E.g. CTRL-X, CTRL-C, CTRL-V, CTRL-A, CTRL-S on Windows
  • Arrow keys and DEL vs. Backspace
  • The Mac menu bar
  • Finding the start button on Windows
  • Context menus (and other not the left mouse operations). E.g. control-click on the Mac.
  • Minimization, maximization, etc.
Common applications
  • File and Edit menus, in particular be able to open and save a file to a precise location
  • Finding preferences/options
  • Finding the big "start" button on MS applications
  • Be able to find the help and find information in the help (including web pages if necessary)
Networking and Internet
  • Understand the difference between Internet and the Web
  • Bluetooth (how to connect to devices)
  • Using network drives
  • File transfert with (S)FTP and equivalent Internet / web-based solutions
Web
  • Understand basic browser controls (forward/back, search box, URI box) and be able to set preferences (where to save files, menu bars, ...)
  • Find/use all the tools of a standard portal (configure home page, define settings for receiving messages, post messages, edit contents, use the built-in instant messager, etc.)
  • Use search engines efficiently. Know when to use specialized search engines.
  • Be able to quickly evaluate some information
  • Know specialized search engines, databases and repositories in your field of interest.
  • Create and manage digital presence
Pictures
  • Bitmap vs. vector formats
  • Compressed bitmap formats like JPG, PNG, GIF
Social
  • Email messages (when not to use attachments, quoting)
  • Mangage privacy
  • Stop touching the LCD of your teacher

Basic conceptual skills

  • Find information, e.g. can formulate search terms
  • Filter information
  • Sort information
  • Archive and retrieve
  • Summarize information
  • Be able to read a manual
  • Be able to explore side-bars and menu-bars on a web-site
  • Link information
  • Communicate
  • Collaborate
  • Share

Intermediate technical skills

Common applications
  • Be able to learn the basics of any not too difficult application within a week
  • Be able to pick up a the basics of a formal language like HTML, CSS, SVG within a week.
Scripting
  • Be able to use code (e.g. JavaScript or Basic) when instructions are provided
  • Be able to install portalware using an installer
  • Be able to create a database with a GUI tool and define a user name and password
  • Understand some very basic programming principles: Instructions v.s. comments, functions and function calls, selectors, conditionals, loops, variables and assigment

"Standards"

Links

Definitions
Organizations
Official initiatives
University pages
Online pieces (e.g. blog entries)
Computer literacy tutorials online
Guides to literacy teaching
Online discussion
Blog articles
  • Why Johnny can’t code, by David Brin, Salon, Sep 14, 2006. Quote: “Microsoft and Apple and all the big-time education-computerizing reformers of the MIT Media Lab are failing, miserably. For all of their high-flown education initiatives (like the “$100 laptop”), they seem bent on providing information consumption devices, not tools that teach creative thinking and technological mastery.”

Bibliography

  • BECTA, Web 2.0 technologies for learning at KS3 and KS4 - Project overview, Index page (5 reports)
  • Bennett, S., Maton, K., Kervin, L. (2008), "The ‘digital natives’ debate", British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 39 No.5, pp.775-86.
  • Beyers, RN, Koorbanally, NA (2009). Computer literacy: insufficient for digital age literacy learners, eSkills Summit 2010, Cape Town, 26-28 July 2010, pp 10, http://hdl.handle.net/10204/4753
  • Burnett, C., Dickinson, P., Myers, J., and Merchant, G. (2006), 'Digital connections: transforming literacy in the primary school.' Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(1) 11-29.
  • Carr, Nicholas (2008). "Is Google Making Us Stupid?" The Atlantic
  • Cole, M. (2009). Using Wiki technology to support student engagement: Lessons from the trenches. Computers & Education, 52 (1), 141-146.
  • Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. (1995). Computer Self-Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test. MIS Quarterly, 19(2), 189-211.
  • diSessa, A. (2001), Changing Minds: Computers, Learning, and Literacy. The MIT Press.
  • Duderstadt, J. 2004. Higher learning in the digital age: An update on a National Academies study. Paper presented at the 6th annual meeting of EDUCAUSE, Denver, CO, October. PDF, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
  • Edmunds, Rob; Thorpe, Mary and Conole, Grainne (2010). Student attitudes towards and use of ICT in course study, work and social activity: a technology acceptance model approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, Early View 27 Dec 2010. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01142.x
  • Fisher, M., Baird, D. (2009), "Pedagogical mashup: Gen Y, social media, and digital learning styles", in Hin, L., Subramaniam, R. (Eds),Handbook of Research on New Media Literacy at the K-12 Level, IGI Global, Hershey, PA.
  • Gui, M. & Argentin, G. (2011). Digital skills of internet natives: Different forms of digital literacy in a random sample of northern Italian high school students, New Media & Society. Volume 13 Issue 6 http://nms.sagepub.com/content/13/6/963
  • Hargittai, E. (2002). Second-level digital divide: Differences in people’s online skills. First Monday 7(4).
  • Kress, G (2003), Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.
  • Lanham, R. (1995), 'Digital literacy.' Scientific American, 273, 3 160-160
  • Lohnes, S., Kinzer, C. (2007), “Questioning assumptions about students' expectations for technology in college classrooms”, Innovate, Journal of Online Education, Vol. 3 No. 5. PDF, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
  • Oblinger, D., and J. Oblinger, eds. 2005. Educating the Net Generation. Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE. PDF, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
  • Olson, D. (1986), 'Intelligence and literacy: the relationships between intelligence and the techniques of representation and communication.' In Sternberg, (Ed.), Practical intelligence. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Luehrmann, Arthur. "Computer Literacy--What Should It Be?" The Mathematics Teacher vol 74 no 9, Dec 1981.
  • Martin, A. (2008). Digital literacy and the ‘digital society’. Digital literacies: Concepts, policies and practices, 30, 151-176.
  • Prensky, Marc, 2001 "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.", On the Horizon 9:1-6. PDF part I reprint,
  • Rainie, L., M. Kalehoff, and D. Hess. 2002. College students and the Web: A Pew Internet data memo. Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project. Abstract/HTML/PDF, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
  • Sutherland-Smith, W. (2002), 'Weaving the literacy web: changes in reading from page to screen.' The reading teacher, 55(7), 662-229.
  • Snyder, Ilana and Beavis, Catherine 2004, Doing literacy online : teaching, learning and playing in an electronic world Hampton Press, Cresskill, N.J.. Abstract only
  • Tyler, Keith D. (1998). The Problems in Computer Literacy Training: Are We Preparing Students for a Computer Intensive Future?. Writing for the Professions. HTML, retrieved 19:22, 5 December 2011 (CET).
  • Wecker, C. (2007). Computer literacy and inquiry learning: when geeks learn less, Journal of computer assisted learning, 23, 133-144, 2007.
  • Weller, Martin, The Digital Scholar - How Technology is Transforming Scholarly Practice, Bloomsbury.
  • Wolfe, Barbara B. "Achieving Computer Literacy." SIGUCCS Newsletter. Summer 1998. ACM. pp. 29-32.
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