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{{comment | This article is a bit too long, needs some reorganization and editing, also ''a lot'' text is quoted without reference (should be fixed soon) - [[User:DSchneider|DSchneider]] 19:39, 19 July 2006 (MEST)}}
{{comment | Article under construction! - [[User:sugarch0]] 12 Mai 2010 }}
 
This article is largely inspired by the [http://ldt.stanford.edu/~jeepark/jeepark+portfolio/PBL/skipintro.htm Stanford site on PBL]
   
   
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Line 9: Line 5:
'''Problem-based learning''' (PBL in this article) is defined by Finkle and Torp (1995) as, {{quotation |a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems}}.
'''Problem-based learning''' (PBL in this article) is defined by Finkle and Torp (1995) as, {{quotation |a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems}}.


==What is PBL?==
=== What is PBL? ===
 
Problem-based learning is [[instructional design model]] and a variant of [[project-oriented learning]].


Source : http://sll.stanford.edu/pubs/jeepark/pblsite/skipintro.htm
Problem-based learning is an [[instructional design model]] and a variant of [[project-oriented learning]]. It is closely related to [[inquiry-based learning]].


Students engage in authentic experiences. PBL's are inherently social and collaborative in methodology and teach students essential "soft skills" as well as domain specific content and skills. PBL is learner-centered and gives the learners progressively more responsibility and independence in their education. It encourages life-long learning.
Real-life problems seldom parallel well-structured problems; hence, the ability to solve traditional school-based problems does little to increase relevant, critical thinking skills. Real-life problems present an ever-changing variety of goals, contexts, contents, obstacles, and unknowns which influence how each problem should be approached. To be successful, students need to practice solving ill-structured problems that reflect life beyond the classroom. These skills are the goal of PBL. With Problem-Based Learning, students engage in authentic experiences.
In PBL, it is the problem that drives the curriculum. It does not test a skill, it assists in the development of the skill itself.There is not one solution: the problem is solved in an iterative process where the perception of the problem can change as do the solutions found.


Through PBL, students learn:
PBL is inherently social and collaborative in methodology and teaches students essential "soft skills" as well as domain specific content and skills. PBL is learner-centered and gives the learners progressively more responsibility and independence in their education. It encourages life-long learning.
* Problem-solving skills with relevant and contextual problems.
In PBL, it is the problem that drives the curriculum. It does not test a skill, it assists in the development of the skill itself. There is no one solution: the problem is solved in an iterative process where the perception of the problem can change as do the solutions found.
* Self-directed learning skills
* Ability to find and use appropriate resources
* Critical thinking
* Measurable knowledge base
* Performance ability
* Social and ethical skills
* Self-sufficient and self-motivated
* Facility with computer
* Leadership skills
* Ability to work on a team
* Communication skills
* Proactive thinking
* Congruence with workplace skills


=== What Skills do Students learn? ===


== Historical Background ==
Through PBL, students learn:


*'''Solving real-life problems:''' Learning to solve relevant and contextual problems congruent with workplace skills, develop initiative, performance ability and enthusiasm.


Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has become popular because of its apparent benefits to student learning.
*'''Efficient problem solving:''' Develop the ability to find and use appropriate resources for problem solving


PBL can be thought of as a combination of [[Cognitivism|cognitive]] and [[Socio-constructivism|social constructivist]] theories, as developed by Piaget and Vygotsky, respectively.
*'''Independant learning:''' Employ effective self-directed and self-motivated learning skills and proactive thinking to continue learning as a lifetime habit
The first application of PBL was in medical schools which rigorously test the knowledge base of graduates.
According to García-Famoso (2005), {{quotation|PBL was first applied in the 60s, in the Faculty of Health Sciences of McMaster University (Canada) and in the School of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University (United States). The main objective was twofold: to develop problem solving skills and bring learning closer to real medical problems.
After these first experiences, many medical and professional schools started to use some form of PBL,
for example, Harvard Medical School or, in the Europe, Maastrich University}}.
Many medical and professional schools, as well as undergraduate and graduate programs use PBL in some form, at varying capacities internationally. Over 80% of medical schools use the PBL methodology to teach students about clinical cases, either real or hypothetical (Vernon & Blake, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991).


== Instructor's Role ==
*'''Self-monitoring:''' Continuously monitor and assess the adequacy of their own knowledge and of their problem-solving skills, practice critical thinking (see also [[cognitive tools]])


(Mayo, Donnelly, Nash, & Schwartz, 1993). Teaching in PBL normally occurs within small discussion groups of students facilitated by a faculty tutor (Aspy, Aspy, & Quimby, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991).
*'''Team work:''' Efficient collaboration as a member of a group, communication and leadership skills, social and ethical skills.  


Because the amount of direct instruction is reduced in PBL, students assume greater responsibility for their own learning (Bridges & Hallinger, 1991). The instructor's role becomes one of subject matter expert, resource guide, and task group consultant. The instructor's role is to encourage student participation, provide appropriate information to keep students on track, avoid negative feedback, and assume the role of fellow learner (Aspy et al., 1993).This arrangement promotes group processing of information rather than an imparting of information by faculty (Vernon & Blake, 1993).  
From the [http://www.pbli.org/core.htm problem based learning initiative] of the southern illinois university and the [http://ldt.stanford.edu/~jeepark/jeepark+portfolio/PBL/skipintro.htm Stanford site on PBL]


== Student's Role ==
=== Historical Background ===


;Groups in PBL
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has become popular because of its benefits to student learning.  
* Teams are responsible for
** scheduling their own activities
** deciding how to use their time to solve the problem
** master the learning objectives.
* Groups usually consist of 5 to 7 students. Four roles are possible:
** project leader - proposes meeting agendas, suggests division of labor, and develops the overall project plan.
** facilitator - describes the process to be followed during the steps of the project plan, determines appropriate time to proceed in plan, and suggests adjustments to the plan as needed.
** recorder - takes group notes of each meeting.
** team member - takes individual notes, participates in discussion, and reviews resource materials.
* Other PBL models include a mentor or tutor in the group (often a faculty member, or another student).


;The individual student in PBL
PBL can be thought of as a combination of [[Cognitivism|cognitive]] and [[Socio-constructivism|social constructivist]] theories, as developed by Piaget and Vygotsky, respectively.  
* active role in learning.
The first application of PBL was in medical schools which rigorously test the knowledge base of graduates.  
* students have responsibility for their own learning by identifying their learning issues and needs.
According to García-Famoso (2005), {{quotation|PBL was first applied in the 60s, in the Faculty of Health Sciences of McMaster University (Canada) and in the School of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University (United States). The main objective was twofold: to develop problem solving skills and bring learning closer to real medical problems.}}
 
After these first experiences, many medical and professional schools started to use some form of PBL,
 
for example, Harvard Medical School or, in Europe, Maastrich University.
The ability to solve problems is more than just accumulating knowledge and rules; it is the development of flexible, cognitive strategies that help analyze unanticipated, ill-structured situations to produce meaningful solutions.  
Many medical and professional schools, as well as undergraduate and graduate programs, use PBL in some form. Over 80% of medical schools use the PBL methodology to teach students about clinical cases, either real or hypothetical (Vernon & Blake, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991).
 
Real-life problems seldom parallel well-structured problems; hence, the ability to solve traditional school-based problems does little to increase relevant, critical thinking skills students need to interact with life beyond classroom walls. Real-life problems present an ever-changing variety of goals, contexts, contents, obstacles, and unknowns which influence how each problem should be approached. To be successful, students need practice solving ill-structured problems that reflect life beyond the classroom. This skill is the goal of PBL.


This is probably why over 80% of medical schools use the PBL methodology to teach students about clinical cases, either real or hypothetical (Vernon & Blake, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991).
== Models of PBL, Designing PBL curricula ==


==Models of PBL==
=== Models of PBL ===


There are many problem-based learning models. E.g. Edwin Bridges (1992) suggests that there are two versions of PBL that have been implemented in the classroom, problem-stimulated PBL and Student Centered PBL.
There are many problem-based learning models. E.g. Edwin Bridges (1992) suggests that there are two versions of PBL that have been implemented in the classroom, problem-stimulated PBL and Student Centered PBL.


;Problem Stimulated PBL (PS PBL)
'''Problem Stimulated PBL''' (PS PBL)


PS PBL uses role relevant problems in order to introduce and learn new knowledge. The Prospective Principals Program at Stanford University's School of Education employs PS PBL in its curriculum.  
PS PBL uses role relevant problems in order to introduce and learn new knowledge.  


PS PBL emphasizes 3 major goals:  
PS PBL emphasizes 3 major goals:  
# development of domain-specific skills  
* development of domain-specific skills  
# development of problem-solving skills  
* development of problem-solving skills  
# acquisition of domain-specific knowledge
* acquisition of domain-specific knowledge
 
;;The PS PBL Process
# Students receive the following learning materials:
## the problem ;
## a list of objectives that the student is expected to master while working on the problem ;
## a reference list of materials that pertain to the basic objectives ;
## questions that focus on important concepts and applications of the knowledge base.
#Students work in teams to complete the project, resolve the problem, and accomplish the learning objectives.
## each student has a particular role in the team - leader, facilitator, recorder, or team member
## time allotted to each project is fixed
## the team schedules its own activities and decides how to use the allotted time
# Student performance is evaluated by instructors, peers, and self using questionnaires, interviews, observation, and other assessment methods.
 
Throughout the process, instructors serve as resources to the teams and provide guidance and direction if the team asks for it or becomes stymied in the project.


;Student Centered PBL (SC PBL)
'''Student Centered PBL''' (SC PBL)
SC PBL is similar to PS PBL in some aspects. SC PBL has the same goals as PS PBL, but includes one more: fostering life-long learning skills. Physicians are one group of professionals who are required to stay current with new developments in their fields. The skills of a life-long learner are particularly important for this group. Hence, several medical schools employ student centered PBL.


;The SC PBL Process
SC PBL has the same goals as PS PBL, but includes one more: fostering life-long learning skills. Physicians are one group of professionals who are required to stay current with new developments in their fields. The skills of a life-long learner are particularly important for this group. Hence, several medical schools employ student centered PBL.  
# Students receive the problem situation.
# Students work on the problem in project teams.
# Students are evaluated in multiple ways by instructors, peers, and self.  


The process appears to be similar to that of PS PBL, but there are significant differences in each step, which are driven by the goal of fostering life-long learning skills. The major differences are in student responsibilities. In SC PBL:
The major differences with PS PBL are in student responsibilities.
* students identify the learning issues they wish to explore;
In SC PBL:
* students determine the content to be mastered;
* students themselves identify the learning issues they wish to explore
* students determine and locate the resources to be used.
* students determine the content to be mastered
* students determine and locate the resources to be used  


In short, students have self-defined learning issues.
In short, students have self-defined learning issues.
As is the case with PS PBL, students decide how to appropriately use the newly acquired information and knowledge in order to solve the problem at hand.
As is the case with PS PBL, students decide how to appropriately use the newly acquired information and knowledge in order to solve the problem at hand.


;Case-based PBL
'''Case-based PBL'''
 
See [[learning by design]].
See [[learning by design]].
The typical sequence of activities in a Learning-by-Design unit has students encountering a design challenge and attempting a solution using only prior knowledge. Students compare and contrast their ideas, identify what they need to learn to move forward in addressing the design challenge, choose a learning issue to focus on, and design and/or run a laboratory activity to examine that issue. Following this are cycles of exploratory and experimental work.Kolodner, Crismond, Gray, Holbrook & Puntembakar (1998)


==The Advantages of PBL==
=== Designing PBL ===


source : http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/PBLadvantages.html
'''Integrating PBL into a Curriculum'''
Les "Goals and Objectives" sont tirés de...Summary of Psychological Basis of PBL
source: ??? (un tableau si je me rappelle bien...)


*Emphasis on Meaning, Not Facts
Design Considerations:
*Increased Self Directed learning
* How should PBL be incorporated into the curriculum?
*Higher Comprehension and Better Skill Development
* What problems should be used and how should they be presented?
*Interpersonal Skills and Teamwork
* What are the instructional goals?
*Self-Motivated Attitude
* How should small groups be formed?
* '''Goals and Objectives of PBL :''' Foster problem-solving skills in students.
* How much should each problem be prestructured?
* '''Goals and Objectives of PBL :''' Enhance acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge.
* How to evaluate the program and the students?
* '''Goals and Objectives of PBL :''' [[Transfer of learning|Transfer]] of Principles and Concepts.
* What resources should be available?
*Level of Learning
* How to prepare students and faculty for PBL? (Bridges, 1992).


Why is there an increase in scores resulting in PBL? Information theory links 3 conditions to subsequent improved retrieval and use. Bridges & Hallinger (1991) report that students improve their comprehension because they:
'''Creating appropriate Problems'''
# are better at activating prior knowledge,
# learn in a context resembling their future context, and
# elaborate more fully on the information presented.
Increased elaboration promotes mental processing, understanding, and recall. Because content is learned in context, definitions, information, theories, correlations, and principles are learned and integrated with one another (Mandin, Harasym, & Watanabe, 1995).


See also the [[learning level]] article.
PBL problems should be created with :
* introduction
* content
* learning objectives
* resources
* expected outcome
* guiding questions
* assessment exercises
* time frame
(Bridges, 1992)


== Barriers and disadvantages ==
The best format for problems is unorganized, unsynthesized, and open-ended because this allows for student processing. Students are motivated to use their reasoning skills and relate the content to their own context and previous knowledge. Focus problems on current events, student lives, or relationships to actual occurrences. Problems should be interdisciplinar and task oriented. It should not only focus on the large problem but also take students through the objectives. (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)


;The Barriers to PBL
Novice learners require more structure and cues while more experienced students are self-directed learners. Software can be used in the PBL curriculum, but avoid telling students when the solution is reached. This stops the learning process. Point out inappropriate strategies.
source : http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/PBLBarriers.html
Complex problems usually require learners to exhibit management, research, and thinking skills that help distinguish less expert from more expert performers. This differentiation can help serve as a grading standards in the class.(Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)


# Changing the Curriculum
'''Getting Started'''
# The transition is difficult
# More Time to Teach Same Content
# PBL Costs More
# Faculty lack extrinsic rewards for PBL teaching
# Faculty lack facilitator skills.


;Disadvantages of PBL
* Anticipate and manage anxiety (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).
source: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/DisPBL.html
* Explain to all involved what is happening and why.
* Tutors should receive training (Foley, Levy, Russinof, & Lemon, 1993).
* Students should be oriented to PBL.
* State the PBL goals.  
* Randomly assign students to PBL (Mennin Friedman, Skipper, Kalishman, & Snyder, 1993).  


# Academic achievement : Few academicians doubt the ability of students schooled in PBL to exhibit strong reasoning and team building skills.
According to Schmidt and Moust (1989), the student progresses through a series of steps, "The Seven Jump", during the PBL process.
# Time demands.
# Clarify unknown terms and concepts in the problem description.
# Role of the student : Because of the orientation towards the subject-matter expertise of their instructor and the traditional memorization of facts required of students, many students appear to have lost the ability to "simply wonder about something" (Reithlingshoefer, 1992).  
# Define the problem(s). List the phenomena or events to be explained.
# Role of the teacher : In PBL, the instructor acts more as a facilitator than disseminator of information.  
# Analyze the problem(s). Step 1. Brainstorm. Try to produce as many different explanations for the phenomena as you think of. Use prior knowledge and common sense. Student outcomes: activation of prior knowledge, elaboration, restructuring of information, organization of information, intrinsic motivation (see also [[Flow theory]], [[Motivation]]).  
# Appropriate problems : Without problems that encompass both a large goal and specific objectives which students must find on their way to reaching the goal's solution, there is a good chance that important information will not be studied.  
# Analyze the problem(s). Step 2. Discuss. Criticize the explanations proposed and try to produce a coherent description of the processes that, according to what you think, underlie the phenomena or events.
# Student assessment : PBL differs from traditional instruction in a variety of ways, and therefore student knowledge and achievement may be better measured with alternate assessment methods.
# Formulate learning issues for self-directed learning.
# Fill in gaps in your knowledge through self-study.
# Share your findings with your group and try to integrate the knowledge acquired into a comprehensive explanation for the phenomena or events. Check whether you know enough now. Student outcomes: restructuring, applying, problem solving.


;How to Overcome Barriers and Implement PBL
'''Evaluation'''
source: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/PBLimplementing.html


# Overcoming Resistance : Show faculty members examples of success and to explain how it works. Provide them with training. Engage them in activities such as observing facilitators.
Because instruction and learning is different in problem based settings than traditional instruction, many instructors find student evaluation difficult.
# Rewarding Faculty for PBL Participation.
# Finding Time and Money.
# Training teachers to use PBL.
# Strategy : Faculty should read about PBL and how to facilitate small group discussions. Faculty should envision the situation from the student's view. Faculty should create a forum for facilitators to discuss PBL issues as they arise. Faculty should promote seek feedback from students.


PBL encourages development of meta-cognitive skills like group learning or research and communication skills and aims transferring knowledge to novel situations. With such multiple purposes for PBL, it is important to consider a variety of evaluation techniques:


* Written examinations: should be designed to ensure transference of skills to similar problems or subject domains.
* Practical examinations: used to ensure that students are able to apply skills learned during the course.
* Concept maps: much of the learning that goes on during PBL is more than just a compilation of facts. As such, written examinations may not be an adequate measure of student growth. Requiring students to generate concept maps, in which they depict their knowledge through the creation of identified nodes and links, may present another option to determine their cognitive growth.
* Peer assessment: because life outside the classroom usually requires working with others, peer assessment is a viable option to measure student growth. Providing students with an evaluation rubric often helps guide the peer evaluation process. This process also emphasizes the cooperative nature of the PBL environment.
* Self assessment: an important element of PBL is to help students identify gaps in their knowledge base in order for more meaningful learning to result. Self assessment allows students to think more carefully about what they know, what they do not know, and what they need to know to accomplish certain tasks.
* Facilitators/tutor assessment: the feedback provided by tutors should encourage the students to explore different ideas. It is important that facilitators do not dominate the group and facilitate learning and exploration. Tutor assessment may consist of how successful individuals interacted with their group and their cognitive growth.
* Oral Presentations: because so much of work life revolves around presenting ideas and results to peers, oral presentation in PBL provide students an opportunity to practice their communication skills. Presenting findings to their group, the class, or even a real-life audience can help strengthen these skills.
* Reports: Written communication is another skill important for students. Requiring written reports allows students to practice this form of communication.


==How to Structure PBL==
Evaluation is an iterative process. Be prepared to make changes along the way based on experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).


source: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/PBLStructure.html
'''Ressources'''


;Design Considerations
Ensure resources and time are available for self-study. "If students are to be genuinely empowered with their own learning, it is important to provide them with the necessary infrastructure." (Rangagachari, 1991). PBL students study in the library more than conventional students and study more during the day than the evening. Increasing the time spent instructing students decreases the time students spend in self-study (Williams, Saarinen-Rahikka, & Norman, 1995).
# How should PBL be incorporated into the curriculum?
If students must learn basic science or similar material for national standardized examinations, increase student access to self-assessment, provide practice examinations, allow additional examination preparation time (Mennin et al., 1993).
# What problems should be used and how should they be presented?
# What are the instructional goals?
# How should small groups be formed?
# How much should each problem be prestructured?
# How to evaluate the program and the students?
# What resources should be available?
# How to prepare students and faculty for PBL? (Bridges, 1992).


;Getting Started
See also [[Problem-based learning and electronic games]]
* Anticipate and manage anxiety (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).
* Explain to all involved what is happening and why.
* Tutors should receive training (Foley, Levy, Russinof, & Lemon, 1993).
* Students should be oriented to PBL.
* State the PBL goals.
* Randomly assign students to PBL (Mennin Friedman, Skipper, Kalishman, & Snyder, 1993).


;Creating An Appropriate Problem
== Roles in PBL ==


*PBL problems should be created with (Bridges, 1992):
=== Instructor's Role ===
# introduction,
# content,
# learning objectives,
# resources,
# expected outcome,
# guiding questions,
# assessment exercises,
# and time frame .


* Relevancy
Teaching in PBL normally occurs within small discussion groups of students facilitated by a faculty tutor (Aspy, Aspy, & Quimby, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991, Mayo, Donnelly, Nash, & Schwartz, 1993).
** focus problems on current events, student lives, or relationships to actual occurrences at the local, national, or international level.  
Because the amount of direct instruction is reduced in PBL, students assume greater responsibility for their own learning. The instructor's role becomes one of subject matter expert, resource guide, and task group consultant. This arrangement promotes group processing of information rather than an imparting of information by faculty (Vernon & Blake, 1993).  
** maintain motivation
The tutor is most active in planning the PBL, the content and sequence of projects.
** Content reasonable for the time allotted.
He encourages student participation, provides appropriate information to keep students on track, gives immediate and appropriate feedback, and assumes the role of mentor, tutor or fellow learner (Aspy et al., 1993).
** ability of students to transfer their acquired skills and knowledge to life outside the classroom, and their ability to solve real world problems.
The tutor acts as metacognitive coach, serving as model, thinking aloud with students and practicing behavior he wants his students to use (Stepien and Gallagher, 1993.
He also evaluates the students.


* Coverage: to help ensure your problem will guide students to appropriate information :
=== Student's Role ===
** Identify the big picture, major concept, or main idea
** Identify the basic facts and concepts students have to uncover as they solve the problem.
** Create a problem that not only focuses students on the large problem but also takes them through the objectives.
** Make sure resources are available for students to reference during their problem analysis and solution.


* Complexity
'''The individual student in PBL'''
** Helps ensure that there is no "one right" answer. Having multiple correct answers that approach the problem from various perspectives and solutions can springboard to class discussions that stimulate student higher level thinking.
** Often allow for the integration of interdisciplinary solutions; a common occurrence in solving real world problems.
** Complex problems usually require learners to exhibit management, research, and thinking skills that help distinguish less expert from more expert performers (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). This differentiation can help serve as a grading standards in the class.


;Guidelines for Problems
In PBL, students have responsibility for their own learning by identifying their learning issues and needs.
# common situation to serve as a prototype for other situations,
# significant,
# prevention is possible,
# interdisciplinary,
# cover objectives,
# task oriented,
# and complex enough to incorporate prior knowledge (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993).


Novice learners require more structure and cues while more experienced students are self-directed learners. The best format for problems is unorganized, unsynthesized, and open-ended because this allows for student processing (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Students are motivated to use their reasoning skills and relate the content to their own context and previous knowledge (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). Software can be used in the PBL curriculum, but avoid telling students when the solution is reached. This stops the learning process. Point out inappropriate strategies.
The students work with the following learning materials:
* the problem situation
* a list of objectives that the student is expected to master while working on the problem
* a reference list of materials that pertain to the basic objectives
* questions that focus on important concepts and applications of the knowledge base.


;Evaluation
Time allotted to each project is fixed.  
Evaluation is an iterative process. Be prepared to make changes along the way based on experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).  
Students work on the problem in project teams.
Students are evaluated in multiple ways by instructors, peers, and self, using questionnaires, interviews, observation, and other assessment methods.


;The Library
'''Groups in PBL'''
Ensure resources and time are available for self-study. "If students are to be genuinely empowered with their own learning, it is important to provide them with the necessary infrastructure." (Rangagachari, 1991). PBL students study in the library more than conventional students and study more during the day than the evening. Increasing the time spent instructing students, decreases the time students spend in self-study (Williams, Saarinen-Rahikka, & Norman, 1995). Limit instructional time to promote self-study by students. If students must learn basic science or similar material for national standardized examinations, increase student access to self-assessment, provide practice examinations, allow additional examination preparation time (Mennin et al., 1993).


;Example & Facilitation of PBL
Students work in teams to complete the project, resolve the problem, and accomplish the learning objectives.  
Real life problems are inherently interdisciplinary and all disciplines can tailor the exampled approach that follows. Learning in the problem-based curriculum is initiated with the presentation of an ill-structured problem. Programs that focus on "neat" well-defined problems do not seem to have an effect on the way students approach real problems in the career path they choose (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, 1992). To set the stage and orchestrate a PBL format, presented here are points an instructor may incorporate to achieve such a course, with a medical school example case in point.


See an example: [[Medicine Blends Computers and PBL]]
Groups usually consist of 5 to 7 students. Four roles are possible:  
* project leader - proposes meeting agendas, suggests division of labor, and develops the overall project plan.
* facilitator - describes the process to be followed during the steps of the project plan, determines appropriate time to proceed in plan, and suggests adjustments to the plan as needed.
* recorder - takes group notes of each meeting.
* team member - takes individual notes, participates in discussion, and reviews resource materials.
Some PBL models include a mentor or tutor in the group (often a faculty member, or another student).


== PBL according to the Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning ==
The team schedules its own activities and decides how to use the allotted time


[http://sll.stanford.edu/pubs/jeepark/pblsite/inclassview.htm Problem-based learning]
See also [[Problem-based learning and social software]]


;PBL in the classroom
== Discussion ==
There are several models of how PBL works in the classroom. All of them agree that in a PBL curriculum,
# students work through a series of problems designed to:
#*  be authentic (i.e. address real-world concerns)
#* target defined areas of the curriculum
#* be "ill-structured" - they must be defined and analyzed through inquiry from a minimum of presenting information
#* approximate the real world, so that students find  themselves actually engaged in the problem and not just observers of it;
# the role of the instructor changes from a "sage on the stage" to a "guide on the side";
# students work collaboratively in small groups toward the problem's resolution.


Barrows (1985) proposes the following model of the PBL process :
=== Application of PBL: Advantages, Disadvantages ===


<table width="98%" border="1" align="center">
'''Advantages'''
<tr>
  <td>Process</td>
  <td>Purpose</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td>Students read and address problem, without background preparation.</td>
  <td>
*Teaches students to encode and organize information in useful ways.
*Allows students to find what they know and what they don¹t know. Misconceptions can be corrected in discussion of the problem.
*Mimics the real life context they will face as doctors.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td>Students discuss and analyze problem using prior knowledge and resources available.
Tutor poses questions: ie. Do you need more information? Are you sure of the facts or will a review be helpful? Do you think more information on this area would be helpful?
Tutors encourage hypotheses are grounded in science.</td>
  <td>
*Development of cognitive skills for problem-solving process
*Development of self-monitoring skills to identify the learning needs
*Development of habitual student-initiated questioning
  </td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td>Students decide what they need to know and where they might best find the information. They decide which resources to use (people, published papers, etc.).</td>
  <td>
*Self-directed study
  </td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td>Students revisit problem with new information and knowledge acquired during self-study.
Students critique learning resources used.
Group decides appropriate hypotheses and critiques prior performance.</td>
  <td>
*New organization of information to problem-solve.
*Self-assessment
*Peer-assessment</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td>Students should think about how what they learned has added to their understanding</td>
  <td>
*Reflection
*Self-assessment
  </td>
</tr>
</table>


Schmidt and Moust describe the main frame of the process of PBL as iterative and cyclical in nature.  
Why is there an increase in scores resulting in PBL?
Information theory links 3 conditions to subsequent improved retrieval and use. Bridges & Hallinger (1991) report that students improve their comprehension because they:
# are better at activating prior knowledge,
# learn in a setting resembling their future context, and
# elaborate more fully on the information presented.
Increased elaboration promotes mental processing, understanding, and recall. Because content is learned in context, definitions, information, theories, correlations, and principles are learned and integrated with one another (Mandin, Harasym, & Watanabe, 1995).


# Students approach the problem, without any prior background research.
See also the [[learning level]] article.
# In the small group tutorial, they analyze the problem based on prior-knowledge, elaborate on the knowledge through discussion, develop new knowledge structures and formulate their own learning objectives.
# Students proceed to a period of self-directed study. This helps them to develop, fine-tune, and restructure the existing knowledge structure.
# Students then return to the small group tutorial, where they integrate and apply the knowledge they gained during self-directed study in order to problem-solve.
Students will then return to the first step and continue to cycle until the problem is fully addressed.


The [http://www.bie.org/ Buck Institute fro Education (BIE)] sees PBL as a mean of developping what they call 21st century skills, meaning
* ICT literacy
* cognitive skills like critical thinking, creativeness
* Interpersonal skills
* Self- and task-managment skills
* personal charcteristics like ethical sensibility, civic responsibility, accountability


According to Schmidt and Moust (1989), the student progresses through a series of steps, "The Seven Jump", during the PBL process.
'''Disadvantages'''
# Clarify unknown terms and concepts in the problem description.
# Define the problem(s). List the phenomena or events to be explained.
# Analyze the problem(s). Step 1. Brainstorm. Try to produce as many different explanations for the phenomena as you think of. Use prior knowledge and common sense.
#* student outcomes:activation of prior knowledge, elaboration, restructuring of information, organization of information, intrinsic motivation]
# Analyze the problem(s). Step 2. Discuss. Criticize the explanations proposed and try to produce a coherent description of the processes that, according to what you think, underlie the phenomena or events.
# Formulate learning issues for self-directed learning.
# Fill in gaps in your knowledge through self-study.
# Share your findings with your group and try to integrate the knowledge acquired into a comprehensive explanation for the phenomena or events. Check whether you know enough now.
#* student outcomes: restructuring, applying, problem solving]


;The instructor in PBL
Introducing PBL means
* serves as a resource to the student teams.
* is frequently acts as a mentor or tutor to the group.
* is most active in planning the PBL the content and sequence of projects, providing immediate feedback on student work and discussion, and evaluating students.
* acts as metacognitive coach, serving as model, thinking aloud with students and practicing behavior he wants his students to use (Stepien and Gallagher, 1993).
* coaxes and prompts students to use questions such as "What is going on here? What do we need to know more about? What did we do during the problem that was effective?" and take on responsibility for the problem.
* is aware of the progress and conversations within the groups so that students continue on fruitful paths.


== Assessment of PBL ==
* changing the Curriculum
source:http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/webassess/studentNclasses.html
* introducing higher costs
* higher time demands: PBL takes more time to teach the same content
* change of roles: Students have to change attitude and go from memorization of facts to an active searching for information(Reithlingshoefer, 1992). Teachers have to shift from dissemination of information to a tutor's and guide role.
* formulation of appropriate problems that encompass both a large goal and specific objectives
* setting up appropriate assessment
* facing a lack of extrinsic rewards for PBL teaching


Because instruction and learning is different in problem based settings than traditional instruction, many instructors find student evaluation difficult.
=== Is PBL better? ===
PBL encourages development of meta-cognitive skills like group learning or research and communication skills and aims transferring knowledge to novel situations. With such multiple purposes for PBL, it is important to consider a variety of evaluation techniques.


San Diego State University's  [http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/webassess/studentNclasses.htmlInstructional Technology Initiative Web Site]) suggests the following ideas for assessment:
When determining the value of PBL curriculum, the literature has focused on 4 components :  


* Written examinations : should be designed to ensure transference of skills to similar problems or subject domains.
* Attitudes: Students enrolled in PBL courses appear to have a more favorable attitude toward their course than students schooled in traditional instruction. Improved attitudes contribute to a variety of factors including increased course enrollment, enhanced interest in major course of study, and positive feedback from faculty and employers (Pincus, 1995); a reduced dropout rate (Bridges & Hallinger, 1991; Pincus, 1995); and an increase in student comments concerning the advantages of PBL after their learning experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995). Schmidt, Henny, and de Vries (1992) conclude that "problem based curricula do appear to provide a friendlier and more inviting educational climate."
* Practical examinations : used to ensure that students are able to apply skills learned during the course.
* Concept maps : Much of the learning that goes on during PBL is more than just a compilation of facts. As such, written examinations may not be an adequate measure of student growth. Requiring students to generate concept maps, in which they depict their knowledge through the creation of identified nodes and links, may present another option to determine their cognitive growth.
* Peer assessment : Because life outside the classroom usually requires working with others, peer assessment is a viable option to measure student growth. Providing students with an evaluation rubric often helps guide the peer evaluation process. This process also emphasizes the cooperative nature of the PBL environment.
* Self assessment : An important element of PBL is to help students identify gaps in their knowledge base in order for more meaningful learning to result. Self assessment allows students to think more carefully about what they know, what they do not know, and what they need to know to accomplish certain tasks.
* Facilitators/tutor assessment : The feedback provided by tutors should encourage the students to explore different ideas. It is important that facilitators not dominate the group, facilitate learning and exploration. Tutor assessment may consist of how successful individuals interacted with their group and their cognitive growth.
* Oral Presentations : Because so much of work life revolves around presenting ideas and results to peers, oral presentation in PBL provide students an opportunity to practice their communication skills. Presenting findings to their group, the class, or even a real-life audience can help strengthen these skills.
* Reports : Written communication is another skill important for students. Requiring written reports allows students to practice this form of communication.  


;Assessing the value of a PBL curriculum
* Basic knowledge: Test results seem split on basic knowledge comprehension. In the medical field, although it was sometimes found that students schooled with PBL performed worse on standardized tests, they performed better on clinical tests and equal on essay tests to conventionally-schooled students (Albanese, 1993). Not all studies are favorable to PBL, but Albanese found that PBL knowledge is more deeply ingrained and less likely to be forgotten.
source: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/webassess/curriculum.html


When determining the value of PBL curriculum, the literature has focused on 4 components : (a) attitudes, (b) basic knowledge, (c) problem solving ability, and (d) study habits.
* Problem solving ability: Reasoning and problem solving skills: The evidence appears supportive in finding PBL students better than conventional students in analyzing atypical medical cases (Albanese, 1993), and in having stronger problem solving skills (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, 1992).


Attitudes: Students enrolled in PBL courses appear to have a more favorable attitude toward their course than students schooled in traditional instruction. Improved attitudes contribute to a variety of factors including increased course enrollment, enhanced interest in major course of study, and positive feedback from faculty and employers (Pincus, 1995); a reduced dropout rate (Bridges & Hallinger, 1991; Pincus, 1995); and an increase in student comments concerning the advantages of PBL after their learning experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995). Schmidt, Henny, and de Vries (1992) conclude that "problem based curricula do appear to provide a friendlier and more inviting educational climate."
* Study habits: Team work Most PBL is done in small groups. Therefore it is not surprising to find that students who learn in this context tend to be more oriented toward collaborative learning.


Basic knowledge: Test results seem split on basic knowledge comprehension. In the medical field, although it was sometimes found that students schooled with PBL performed worse on standardized tests, they performed better on clinical tests and equal on essay tests to conventionally-schooled students (Albanese, 1993). Not all studies are favorable to PBL, but Albanese found that PBL knowledge is more deeply ingrained and less likely to be as easily forgotten.
== Examples and links ==


Reasoning and problem solving skills: The evidence appears supportive in finding PBL students better than conventional students in analyzing atypical medical cases (Albanese, 1993), and in having stronger problem solving skills (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, 1992).
'''Examples'''


Team work Most PBL is done in small groups. Therefore it is not surprising to find that students who learn in this context tend to be more oriented toward collaborative learning.
* [[Medicine Blends Computers and PBL]]


==Examples and links==
* [[Ace Training Ltd. A complete Case Study of Problem-based learning]]


=== Examples ===
* [http://ldt.stanford.edu/~jeepark/jeepark+portfolio/PBL/example2.htm Examples] of PBL from the Stanford Learning Laboratory.(find examples of PBL at university Level, in biology, environmental sciences, high School level, economics, environmental sciences, history, ancient worlds and english).


;University level
;University level


* Biology : http://www.udel.edu/pbl/curric/bisc207prob.html
* [http://www.udel.edu/pbl/curric/bisc207prob.html Biology]


* Teacher Training in Science: Sherman Rosenfeld and Yehuda Ben-Hur, PBL in Science and Technology: A Case Study of Professional Development, Department of Science Teaching, Wizmann Institute of Science, [http://www.designworlds.com/techscape/Sherm_Inservice.html]
* [http://www.designworlds.com/techscape/Sherm_Inservice.html Teacher Training in Science]
Sherman Rosenfeld and Yehuda Ben-Hur, PBL in Science and Technology: A Case Study of Professional Development, Department of Science Teaching, Wizmann Institute of Science


* [http://www-fhs.mcmaster.ca/mhsi/problem-.htm Problem-Based Learning] at McMaster University (Canada).
* [http://www-fhs.mcmaster.ca/mhsi/problem-.htm Problem-Based Learning] at McMaster University (Canada).
Line 390: Line 257:
;High School Level
;High School Level


* History : http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/bubbles/
* [http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/bubbles/ History]


* Ancient World : http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/ancientworld/index.html
* [http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/ancientworld/index.html Ancient World]


;Commercial PBL example cases
;Commercial PBL example cases
Line 398: Line 265:
* [[Ace Training Ltd. A complete Case Study of Problem-based learning]]
* [[Ace Training Ltd. A complete Case Study of Problem-based learning]]


=== Journals ===
'''Various links'''
 
* [http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/ The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning (IJPBL)] NEW (2006). This seems to be an open access journal !


=== Various links ===
* [[Problem-based learning and electronic games]]


* [http://www.techforlearning.org/pbl/ Problem-based learning] and [http://www.techforlearning.org/PBLresources.html Problem Based Learning Resources], at http://www.techforlearning.org/.
* [[Problem-based learning and social software]]


* [http://www.imsa.edu/programs/pbln/ Problem-Based Learning Network @ IMSA]. An other good resource, including links and bibliography.
* [http://www.techforlearning.org/PBLresources.html Problem-based Learning resources] page with a comprehensive list of links of the technology for learning consortium.


* [http://www.samford.edu/ctls/problem_based_learning.html Problem-based learning], Center for Problem-Based Learning (PBL), Samford University.
* [http://www.imsa.edu/programs/pbln/ Problem-Based Learning] comprehensive site of the Illinois maths and science academy with description of pbl, rersources, examples and more.


* [http://www.learning-theories.com/problem-based-learning-pbl.html Problem-Based Learning] definition
* [http://www.samford.edu/ctls/archives.aspx?id=2147484112 Problem-based learning pages] in the archives of the center for teaching, learning and scholarship from the samford university, alabama, previously center for problem-based learning  


* [http://sll.stanford.edu/pubs/jeepark/pblsite/research.htm at Stanford Learning Lab]. Absolutly dead, but you can retrieve some contents from [http://web.archive.org/web/20070210183300/http://sll.stanford.edu/pubs/jeepark/pblsite/research.htm the webarchive]
* [http://www.learning-theories.com/problem-based-learning-pbl.html Problem-Based Learning] pages of the learning-theories.com site: knowledge base and webliography.


* http://www.ed.psu.edu/nasa/probtxt.html How to
* [http://www.ed.psu.edu/nasa/probtxt.html pennsylvania state university and nasa wiki-like page on pbl]


* http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/home.html
* [http://www.udel.edu/pbl/ very complete pbl site] of the university of delaware.


* http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/PBL_WebQuest.html (WebQuest about PBL)
* [http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/info.html PBL pages] of the maricopa center for learning and instruction MCLI, arizona with a searchable archive.


* http://www.odont.lu.se/projects/ADEE/shanley.html
* [http://pbl.cqu.edu.au/content/online_resources.htm resources site] from the queensland university


* http://www.udel.edu/pbl/problems/ (various PBL)
'''Journals:'''


* Finkle, S. and Torp, L. (1995) seems to be replaced now by  Gerdes, Debra (2004), e.g. http://www2.imsa.edu/programs/pbln/tutorials/intro/intro3.php
* [http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/ The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning (IJPBL)] is an open access journal that publishes relevant, interesting, and challenging articles of research, analysis, or promising practice related to all aspects of implementing problem-based learning (PBL).


== References ==
== References ==


Albanese, M., & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine. 68(1), 52-81.
Albanese, M., & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine. 68(1), 52-81.
Albanese, M. (2000) Problem-based learning: why curricula are likely to show little effect on knowledge and clinical skills.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119185510/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0


Aspy, D.N., Aspy, C. B., & Quimby, P.M. (1993). What doctors can teach teachers about problem-based learning. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 22-24.
Aspy, D.N., Aspy, C. B., & Quimby, P.M. (1993). What doctors can teach teachers about problem-based learning. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 22-24.
Azer SA (2001) Problem-based learning. A critical review of its educational objectives and the rationale for its use. Saudi medical journal


Barrows, H.S. (1985). How to Design a Problem-based Curriculum for the Preclinical Years. New-York : Springer
Barrows, H.S. (1985). How to Design a Problem-based Curriculum for the Preclinical Years. New-York : Springer
Line 441: Line 310:


Bridges, E. M., & Hallinger, P. (1991, September). Problem-based learning in medical and managerial education. Paper presented for the Cognition and School Leadership Conference of the National Center for Educational Leadership and the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Nashville, TN.
Bridges, E. M., & Hallinger, P. (1991, September). Problem-based learning in medical and managerial education. Paper presented for the Cognition and School Leadership Conference of the National Center for Educational Leadership and the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Nashville, TN.
Bridges, E. M., & Hallinger, P. (2006) Problem-based learning in leadership education. Teaching & learning [0887-9486]  Année:2006 volume:1996 numéro:68 page:53


Delafuente, J. C., Munyer, T. O., Angaran, D. M., & Doering, P. L. (1994). A problem solving active learning course in pharmacotherapy. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 58(1), 61-64.
Delafuente, J. C., Munyer, T. O., Angaran, D. M., & Doering, P. L. (1994). A problem solving active learning course in pharmacotherapy. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 58(1), 61-64.
Line 451: Line 322:


Finkle, S.L. y Torp, L.L., “Introductory Documents”, Illinois Math and Science Academy, 1995.
Finkle, S.L. y Torp, L.L., “Introductory Documents”, Illinois Math and Science Academy, 1995.
http://www2.imsa.edu/programs/pbln/tutorials/intro/intro3.php [May 2005]


Foley, R. P., Levy, J., Russinof, H. J., & Lemon, M. R. (1993 ). Planning and implementing a problem-based learning rotation for residents. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 5(2), 102-106.
Foley, R. P., Levy, J., Russinof, H. J., & Lemon, M. R. (1993 ). Planning and implementing a problem-based learning rotation for residents. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 5(2), 102-106.
Line 463: Line 333:
Harden, R. M.  & Margery H. Davis, (1998) The continuum of problem-based learning, ''Medical Teacher'', Vol. 20, No. 4.  
Harden, R. M.  & Margery H. Davis, (1998) The continuum of problem-based learning, ''Medical Teacher'', Vol. 20, No. 4.  


http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningresource/PBL/WhatisPBL.html new link: http://pbl.cqu.edu.au/content/online_resources.htm ''site with a large choice of links to problem solvingb related sites or documents of US universities''
Kolodner, Janet, L. Paul J. Camp, David Crismond, Barbara Fasse, Jackie Gray, Jennifer Holbrook, Sadhana Puntambekar, Mike Ryan (2003). Problem-Based Learning Meets Case-Based Reasoning in the Middle-School Science Classroom: Putting Learning by Design(tm) Into Practice Journal of the Learning Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 4: pages 495-547 Abstract/PDF (Access restricted)
 
http://sll.stanford.edu/pubs/jeepark/pblsite new link: http://ldt.stanford.edu/~jeepark/jeepark+portfolio/PBL/skipintro.htm ''stanford university description of PBL''


Mandin, H., Harasym, P., & Watanabe, M. (1995). Developing a "clinical presentation" curriculum at the University of Calgary. Academic Medicine, 70(3), 186-193.
Mandin, H., Harasym, P., & Watanabe, M. (1995). Developing a "clinical presentation" curriculum at the University of Calgary. Academic Medicine, 70(3), 186-193.
Line 472: Line 340:


Mennin, S. P., Friedman, M, Skipper, B, Kalishman, S., & Snyder, J. (1993). Performances on the NBME I, II, and III by medical students in the problem-based learning and conventional tracks at the University of New Mexico. Academic Medicine, 68(8), 616-624.
Mennin, S. P., Friedman, M, Skipper, B, Kalishman, S., & Snyder, J. (1993). Performances on the NBME I, II, and III by medical students in the problem-based learning and conventional tracks at the University of New Mexico. Academic Medicine, 68(8), 616-624.
Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer, Perspectives on problem solving and instruction, Computers & Education, Volume 64, May 2013, Pages 153-160, ISSN 0360-1315, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.025.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131512002989)


Ostwald, M. J., Chen, S. E., Varnam, B., & McGeorge, W. D. (1992, November). The application of problem-based learning to distance education. Paper presented at the world conference of the International Council for Distance Education, Bangkok, Thailand.
Ostwald, M. J., Chen, S. E., Varnam, B., & McGeorge, W. D. (1992, November). The application of problem-based learning to distance education. Paper presented at the world conference of the International Council for Distance Education, Bangkok, Thailand.


Pincus, K. V. (1995). Introductory Accounting: Changing the First Course. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 61, 88-98.
Pincus, K. V. (1995). Introductory Accounting: Changing the First Course. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 61, 88-98.
Problem Based Learning Initiative at Southern Illinois Institute : http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl1.htm
Problem Based Learning: http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/sources.html (46 web and 16 print references)


Rangachari, P. K. (1991). Design of a problem-based undergraduate course in pharmacology: Implications for the teaching of physiology. Advances in Physiology Education. 5(1), S14-S21.
Rangachari, P. K. (1991). Design of a problem-based undergraduate course in pharmacology: Implications for the teaching of physiology. Advances in Physiology Education. 5(1), S14-S21.
Line 500: Line 367:


Schmidt H.G. & Moust J.H.C. (1998). Processes that Shape Small-Group Tutorial Learning: A Review of Research. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.  
Schmidt H.G. & Moust J.H.C. (1998). Processes that Shape Small-Group Tutorial Learning: A Review of Research. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.  
Schwartz, Peter, Ed.; Mennin, Stewart, Ed.; Webb, Graham, Ed. Problem-Based Learning: (2001) Case Studies, Experience and Practice. Case Studies of Teaching in Higher Education. Book


Song,Hae-Deok, Grabowski,Barbara, Koszalka,Tiffany, Harkness,William, Patterns of Instructional-design Factors Prompting Reflective Thinking in Middle-school and College Level Problem-based Learning Environments, Instructional Science, 34, 1, 1/5/2006, Pages 63-87, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-005-6922-4, DOI 10.1007/s11251-005-6922-4]
Song,Hae-Deok, Grabowski,Barbara, Koszalka,Tiffany, Harkness,William, Patterns of Instructional-design Factors Prompting Reflective Thinking in Middle-school and College Level Problem-based Learning Environments, Instructional Science, 34, 1, 1/5/2006, Pages 63-87, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-005-6922-4, DOI 10.1007/s11251-005-6922-4]
Line 506: Line 375:


Uden, Lorna and Chris Beaumont (2005). Technology and Problem-Based Learning, Information Science Publishing, ISBN 1591407443
Uden, Lorna and Chris Beaumont (2005). Technology and Problem-Based Learning, Information Science Publishing, ISBN 1591407443
Van Berkel (2006) problem-based learning: The influence of tutoring competencies on problems, group functioning and student achievement in problem-based learning. Medical education


Vernon, D. T. (1995). Attitudes and opinions of faculty tutors about problem-based learning. Academic Medicine, 70(3) 216-223.
Vernon, D. T. (1995). Attitudes and opinions of faculty tutors about problem-based learning. Academic Medicine, 70(3) 216-223.
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Williams, R., Saarinen-Rahikka, H., & Norman, G. R. (1995). Self-Directed learning in problem-based health science education. Academic Medicine, 70(2), 161-163.
Williams, R., Saarinen-Rahikka, H., & Norman, G. R. (1995). Self-Directed learning in problem-based health science education. Academic Medicine, 70(2), 161-163.
Woloschuk, Wayne (2000) Use of scheme-based problem solving: an evaluation of the implementation and utilization of schemes in a clinical presentation curriculum Medical Education, Volume 34, Number 6, June 2000 , pp. 437-442(6)


Wood, D. F. (2003). A. B. C.'s of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem-based learning. British Medical Journal, 326.
Wood, D. F. (2003). A. B. C.'s of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem-based learning. British Medical Journal, 326.

Latest revision as of 15:43, 21 March 2014

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL in this article) is defined by Finkle and Torp (1995) as, “a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems”.

What is PBL?

Problem-based learning is an instructional design model and a variant of project-oriented learning. It is closely related to inquiry-based learning.

Real-life problems seldom parallel well-structured problems; hence, the ability to solve traditional school-based problems does little to increase relevant, critical thinking skills. Real-life problems present an ever-changing variety of goals, contexts, contents, obstacles, and unknowns which influence how each problem should be approached. To be successful, students need to practice solving ill-structured problems that reflect life beyond the classroom. These skills are the goal of PBL. With Problem-Based Learning, students engage in authentic experiences.

PBL is inherently social and collaborative in methodology and teaches students essential "soft skills" as well as domain specific content and skills. PBL is learner-centered and gives the learners progressively more responsibility and independence in their education. It encourages life-long learning. In PBL, it is the problem that drives the curriculum. It does not test a skill, it assists in the development of the skill itself. There is no one solution: the problem is solved in an iterative process where the perception of the problem can change as do the solutions found.

What Skills do Students learn?

Through PBL, students learn:

  • Solving real-life problems: Learning to solve relevant and contextual problems congruent with workplace skills, develop initiative, performance ability and enthusiasm.
  • Efficient problem solving: Develop the ability to find and use appropriate resources for problem solving
  • Independant learning: Employ effective self-directed and self-motivated learning skills and proactive thinking to continue learning as a lifetime habit
  • Self-monitoring: Continuously monitor and assess the adequacy of their own knowledge and of their problem-solving skills, practice critical thinking (see also cognitive tools)
  • Team work: Efficient collaboration as a member of a group, communication and leadership skills, social and ethical skills.

From the problem based learning initiative of the southern illinois university and the Stanford site on PBL

Historical Background

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has become popular because of its benefits to student learning.

PBL can be thought of as a combination of cognitive and social constructivist theories, as developed by Piaget and Vygotsky, respectively. The first application of PBL was in medical schools which rigorously test the knowledge base of graduates. According to García-Famoso (2005), “PBL was first applied in the 60s, in the Faculty of Health Sciences of McMaster University (Canada) and in the School of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University (United States). The main objective was twofold: to develop problem solving skills and bring learning closer to real medical problems.” After these first experiences, many medical and professional schools started to use some form of PBL, for example, Harvard Medical School or, in Europe, Maastrich University. Many medical and professional schools, as well as undergraduate and graduate programs, use PBL in some form. Over 80% of medical schools use the PBL methodology to teach students about clinical cases, either real or hypothetical (Vernon & Blake, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991).

Models of PBL, Designing PBL curricula

Models of PBL

There are many problem-based learning models. E.g. Edwin Bridges (1992) suggests that there are two versions of PBL that have been implemented in the classroom, problem-stimulated PBL and Student Centered PBL.

Problem Stimulated PBL (PS PBL)

PS PBL uses role relevant problems in order to introduce and learn new knowledge.

PS PBL emphasizes 3 major goals:

  • development of domain-specific skills
  • development of problem-solving skills
  • acquisition of domain-specific knowledge

Student Centered PBL (SC PBL)

SC PBL has the same goals as PS PBL, but includes one more: fostering life-long learning skills. Physicians are one group of professionals who are required to stay current with new developments in their fields. The skills of a life-long learner are particularly important for this group. Hence, several medical schools employ student centered PBL.

The major differences with PS PBL are in student responsibilities. In SC PBL:

  • students themselves identify the learning issues they wish to explore
  • students determine the content to be mastered
  • students determine and locate the resources to be used

In short, students have self-defined learning issues. As is the case with PS PBL, students decide how to appropriately use the newly acquired information and knowledge in order to solve the problem at hand.

Case-based PBL See learning by design. The typical sequence of activities in a Learning-by-Design unit has students encountering a design challenge and attempting a solution using only prior knowledge. Students compare and contrast their ideas, identify what they need to learn to move forward in addressing the design challenge, choose a learning issue to focus on, and design and/or run a laboratory activity to examine that issue. Following this are cycles of exploratory and experimental work.Kolodner, Crismond, Gray, Holbrook & Puntembakar (1998)

Designing PBL

Integrating PBL into a Curriculum

Design Considerations:

  • How should PBL be incorporated into the curriculum?
  • What problems should be used and how should they be presented?
  • What are the instructional goals?
  • How should small groups be formed?
  • How much should each problem be prestructured?
  • How to evaluate the program and the students?
  • What resources should be available?
  • How to prepare students and faculty for PBL? (Bridges, 1992).

Creating appropriate Problems

PBL problems should be created with :

  • introduction
  • content
  • learning objectives
  • resources
  • expected outcome
  • guiding questions
  • assessment exercises
  • time frame

(Bridges, 1992)

The best format for problems is unorganized, unsynthesized, and open-ended because this allows for student processing. Students are motivated to use their reasoning skills and relate the content to their own context and previous knowledge. Focus problems on current events, student lives, or relationships to actual occurrences. Problems should be interdisciplinar and task oriented. It should not only focus on the large problem but also take students through the objectives. (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)

Novice learners require more structure and cues while more experienced students are self-directed learners. Software can be used in the PBL curriculum, but avoid telling students when the solution is reached. This stops the learning process. Point out inappropriate strategies. Complex problems usually require learners to exhibit management, research, and thinking skills that help distinguish less expert from more expert performers. This differentiation can help serve as a grading standards in the class.(Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)

Getting Started

  • Anticipate and manage anxiety (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).
  • Explain to all involved what is happening and why.
  • Tutors should receive training (Foley, Levy, Russinof, & Lemon, 1993).
  • Students should be oriented to PBL.
  • State the PBL goals.
  • Randomly assign students to PBL (Mennin Friedman, Skipper, Kalishman, & Snyder, 1993).

According to Schmidt and Moust (1989), the student progresses through a series of steps, "The Seven Jump", during the PBL process.

  1. Clarify unknown terms and concepts in the problem description.
  2. Define the problem(s). List the phenomena or events to be explained.
  3. Analyze the problem(s). Step 1. Brainstorm. Try to produce as many different explanations for the phenomena as you think of. Use prior knowledge and common sense. Student outcomes: activation of prior knowledge, elaboration, restructuring of information, organization of information, intrinsic motivation (see also Flow theory, Motivation).
  4. Analyze the problem(s). Step 2. Discuss. Criticize the explanations proposed and try to produce a coherent description of the processes that, according to what you think, underlie the phenomena or events.
  5. Formulate learning issues for self-directed learning.
  6. Fill in gaps in your knowledge through self-study.
  7. Share your findings with your group and try to integrate the knowledge acquired into a comprehensive explanation for the phenomena or events. Check whether you know enough now. Student outcomes: restructuring, applying, problem solving.

Evaluation

Because instruction and learning is different in problem based settings than traditional instruction, many instructors find student evaluation difficult.

PBL encourages development of meta-cognitive skills like group learning or research and communication skills and aims transferring knowledge to novel situations. With such multiple purposes for PBL, it is important to consider a variety of evaluation techniques:

  • Written examinations: should be designed to ensure transference of skills to similar problems or subject domains.
  • Practical examinations: used to ensure that students are able to apply skills learned during the course.
  • Concept maps: much of the learning that goes on during PBL is more than just a compilation of facts. As such, written examinations may not be an adequate measure of student growth. Requiring students to generate concept maps, in which they depict their knowledge through the creation of identified nodes and links, may present another option to determine their cognitive growth.
  • Peer assessment: because life outside the classroom usually requires working with others, peer assessment is a viable option to measure student growth. Providing students with an evaluation rubric often helps guide the peer evaluation process. This process also emphasizes the cooperative nature of the PBL environment.
  • Self assessment: an important element of PBL is to help students identify gaps in their knowledge base in order for more meaningful learning to result. Self assessment allows students to think more carefully about what they know, what they do not know, and what they need to know to accomplish certain tasks.
  • Facilitators/tutor assessment: the feedback provided by tutors should encourage the students to explore different ideas. It is important that facilitators do not dominate the group and facilitate learning and exploration. Tutor assessment may consist of how successful individuals interacted with their group and their cognitive growth.
  • Oral Presentations: because so much of work life revolves around presenting ideas and results to peers, oral presentation in PBL provide students an opportunity to practice their communication skills. Presenting findings to their group, the class, or even a real-life audience can help strengthen these skills.
  • Reports: Written communication is another skill important for students. Requiring written reports allows students to practice this form of communication.

Evaluation is an iterative process. Be prepared to make changes along the way based on experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).

Ressources

Ensure resources and time are available for self-study. "If students are to be genuinely empowered with their own learning, it is important to provide them with the necessary infrastructure." (Rangagachari, 1991). PBL students study in the library more than conventional students and study more during the day than the evening. Increasing the time spent instructing students decreases the time students spend in self-study (Williams, Saarinen-Rahikka, & Norman, 1995). If students must learn basic science or similar material for national standardized examinations, increase student access to self-assessment, provide practice examinations, allow additional examination preparation time (Mennin et al., 1993).

See also Problem-based learning and electronic games

Roles in PBL

Instructor's Role

Teaching in PBL normally occurs within small discussion groups of students facilitated by a faculty tutor (Aspy, Aspy, & Quimby, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991, Mayo, Donnelly, Nash, & Schwartz, 1993). Because the amount of direct instruction is reduced in PBL, students assume greater responsibility for their own learning. The instructor's role becomes one of subject matter expert, resource guide, and task group consultant. This arrangement promotes group processing of information rather than an imparting of information by faculty (Vernon & Blake, 1993). The tutor is most active in planning the PBL, the content and sequence of projects. He encourages student participation, provides appropriate information to keep students on track, gives immediate and appropriate feedback, and assumes the role of mentor, tutor or fellow learner (Aspy et al., 1993). The tutor acts as metacognitive coach, serving as model, thinking aloud with students and practicing behavior he wants his students to use (Stepien and Gallagher, 1993. He also evaluates the students.

Student's Role

The individual student in PBL

In PBL, students have responsibility for their own learning by identifying their learning issues and needs.

The students work with the following learning materials:

  • the problem situation
  • a list of objectives that the student is expected to master while working on the problem
  • a reference list of materials that pertain to the basic objectives
  • questions that focus on important concepts and applications of the knowledge base.

Time allotted to each project is fixed. Students work on the problem in project teams. Students are evaluated in multiple ways by instructors, peers, and self, using questionnaires, interviews, observation, and other assessment methods.

Groups in PBL

Students work in teams to complete the project, resolve the problem, and accomplish the learning objectives.

Groups usually consist of 5 to 7 students. Four roles are possible:

  • project leader - proposes meeting agendas, suggests division of labor, and develops the overall project plan.
  • facilitator - describes the process to be followed during the steps of the project plan, determines appropriate time to proceed in plan, and suggests adjustments to the plan as needed.
  • recorder - takes group notes of each meeting.
  • team member - takes individual notes, participates in discussion, and reviews resource materials.

Some PBL models include a mentor or tutor in the group (often a faculty member, or another student).

The team schedules its own activities and decides how to use the allotted time

See also Problem-based learning and social software

Discussion

Application of PBL: Advantages, Disadvantages

Advantages

Why is there an increase in scores resulting in PBL? Information theory links 3 conditions to subsequent improved retrieval and use. Bridges & Hallinger (1991) report that students improve their comprehension because they:

  1. are better at activating prior knowledge,
  2. learn in a setting resembling their future context, and
  3. elaborate more fully on the information presented.

Increased elaboration promotes mental processing, understanding, and recall. Because content is learned in context, definitions, information, theories, correlations, and principles are learned and integrated with one another (Mandin, Harasym, & Watanabe, 1995).

See also the learning level article.

The Buck Institute fro Education (BIE) sees PBL as a mean of developping what they call 21st century skills, meaning

  • ICT literacy
  • cognitive skills like critical thinking, creativeness
  • Interpersonal skills
  • Self- and task-managment skills
  • personal charcteristics like ethical sensibility, civic responsibility, accountability

Disadvantages

Introducing PBL means

  • changing the Curriculum
  • introducing higher costs
  • higher time demands: PBL takes more time to teach the same content
  • change of roles: Students have to change attitude and go from memorization of facts to an active searching for information(Reithlingshoefer, 1992). Teachers have to shift from dissemination of information to a tutor's and guide role.
  • formulation of appropriate problems that encompass both a large goal and specific objectives
  • setting up appropriate assessment
  • facing a lack of extrinsic rewards for PBL teaching

Is PBL better?

When determining the value of PBL curriculum, the literature has focused on 4 components :

  • Attitudes: Students enrolled in PBL courses appear to have a more favorable attitude toward their course than students schooled in traditional instruction. Improved attitudes contribute to a variety of factors including increased course enrollment, enhanced interest in major course of study, and positive feedback from faculty and employers (Pincus, 1995); a reduced dropout rate (Bridges & Hallinger, 1991; Pincus, 1995); and an increase in student comments concerning the advantages of PBL after their learning experience (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995). Schmidt, Henny, and de Vries (1992) conclude that "problem based curricula do appear to provide a friendlier and more inviting educational climate."
  • Basic knowledge: Test results seem split on basic knowledge comprehension. In the medical field, although it was sometimes found that students schooled with PBL performed worse on standardized tests, they performed better on clinical tests and equal on essay tests to conventionally-schooled students (Albanese, 1993). Not all studies are favorable to PBL, but Albanese found that PBL knowledge is more deeply ingrained and less likely to be forgotten.
  • Problem solving ability: Reasoning and problem solving skills: The evidence appears supportive in finding PBL students better than conventional students in analyzing atypical medical cases (Albanese, 1993), and in having stronger problem solving skills (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, 1992).
  • Study habits: Team work Most PBL is done in small groups. Therefore it is not surprising to find that students who learn in this context tend to be more oriented toward collaborative learning.

Examples and links

Examples

  • Examples of PBL from the Stanford Learning Laboratory.(find examples of PBL at university Level, in biology, environmental sciences, high School level, economics, environmental sciences, history, ancient worlds and english).
University level

Sherman Rosenfeld and Yehuda Ben-Hur, PBL in Science and Technology: A Case Study of Professional Development, Department of Science Teaching, Wizmann Institute of Science

High School Level
Commercial PBL example cases

Various links

  • Problem-Based Learning comprehensive site of the Illinois maths and science academy with description of pbl, rersources, examples and more.
  • Problem-based learning pages in the archives of the center for teaching, learning and scholarship from the samford university, alabama, previously center for problem-based learning
  • PBL pages of the maricopa center for learning and instruction MCLI, arizona with a searchable archive.

Journals:

References

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Albanese, M. (2000) Problem-based learning: why curricula are likely to show little effect on knowledge and clinical skills.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119185510/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

Aspy, D.N., Aspy, C. B., & Quimby, P.M. (1993). What doctors can teach teachers about problem-based learning. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 22-24.

Azer SA (2001) Problem-based learning. A critical review of its educational objectives and the rationale for its use. Saudi medical journal

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Bernstein, P., Tipping, J., Bercovitz, K., & Skinner, H.A. (1995). Shifting students and faculty to a PBL curriculum: Attitudes changed and lessons learned. Academic Medicine, 70(3), 245-247.

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Bridges, E. M., & Hallinger, P. (2006) Problem-based learning in leadership education. Teaching & learning [0887-9486] Année:2006 volume:1996 numéro:68 page:53

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Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer, Perspectives on problem solving and instruction, Computers & Education, Volume 64, May 2013, Pages 153-160, ISSN 0360-1315, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.025. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131512002989)

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