Educational technology

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Definitions

Please note that this article is just a first draft (lots of things are missing).

Educational technology is a very wide field. Therefore one can find many definitions, some of which are conflicting.

• Technology means the systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical task. Therefore, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from different disciplines (communication, psychology, sociology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus experiental knowledge from educational practise (Nathlie Descryver)

• Educational technology is the use of technology to improve education. It is a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Educational technology is sometimes also known as instructional technology or learning technology. (Wikipedia:Educational_technology)

• The study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. ([1])

• A definition centered on its process: "A complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning" ([2])

• "One definition of Educational Technology is that it is a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance" (Encyclopedia of Educational Technology)

• Lachance et al. (1980:183) also focus on the the process idea: la technologie éducative en tant que processus systématique intégrant les diverses fonctions du processus éducatif. Elle vise, d'une part, à analyser des problèmes reliés à l'enseignement et/ou à l'apprentissage et, d'autre part, à élaborer, implanter et évaluer des solutions à ces problèmes par le développement et l'exploitation des ressources éducatives (cited by Lapointe, 1991).

• Educational Technology (Information Technology) according to International Technology Education Association

1. Teaches with technology (uses technology as a tool)
2. Primarily concerned with the narrow spectrum of information and communication technologies
3. Primary goal: To enhance the teaching and learning process

• DSchneider's view: Educational technology can be considered either as a design science or as a collection of research interests addressing fundamental issues of learning, teaching and social organization.

• Terminology issue: Educational technology is a field. A educational technology refers to a technology that is particularly suited for education plus its usage/range of applications maybe. See the category Educational technologies.

See also: Instructional technology which is sometimes used as a synonym, sometimes not.

Incomplete definitions

• Technology that is used as tool in education ... it's not just technology

• Using multimedia technologies or audiovisual aids as a tool to enhance the teaching and learning process. International Technology Education Association ... it's not just multimedia

• Field of education centered on the design and use of messages and physical support conditioning pedagogical situations and learning process. [3] ... it's not just conditioning

Goals of Educational Technology

Educational technology research always had an ambitious agenda. Sometimes it only aims at increased efficiency or effectiveness of current practise, but frequently it aims at pedagogical change. While it can be considered as a design science it also addresses fundamental issues of learning, teaching and social organization and therefore makes use of the full range of modern social science and life sciences methodology.

"Technology provides us with powerful tools to try out different designs, so that instead of theories of education, we may begin to develop a science of education. But it cannot be an analytic science like physics or psychology; rather it must be a design science more like aeronautics or artificial intelligence. For example, in aeronautics the goal is to elucidate how different designs contribute to lift, drag maneuverability, etc. Similarly, a design science of education must determine how different designs of learning environments contribute to learning, cooperation, motivation, etc." (Collins, 1992:24).

Technology is therefore both a tool and a catalyser and it can become a medium through which change can happen.

“Educational technologists would not therefore consider the computer as just another piece of equipment. If educational technology is concerned with thinking carefully about teaching and learning, then a computer has a contribution to make irrespective of its use as a means of implementation, for the design of computer-based learning environments gives us a new perspective on the nature of teaching and learning and indeed on general educational objectives. (O'Shea and Self: 1983: 59).

What is it about ?

This is both simple (e.g. see the definitions at the top) and difficult. Besides being a field of research, Educational Technology is synonymous for { Pedagogy, Learning, Instructional design, etc.} with technology and therefore also an engineering discipline, a design science or an craft (whatever you prefer).

Here is picture that shows what kinds of parameters have to enter an instructional design:

(promised, we will replace it by a better one and expand this ...)

In other words, it doesn't make much sense to talk about Educational Technology in isolation. Therefore, see also:

• Learning theory
• Pedagogical theory
• Learning type
• Pedagogic strategy
• Instructional design model

A field is implicitly defined by journals, conferences and study programs.

The Journal of Interactive Learning Research published by the association for the Avancement of Computing in Education included on March 2006 the following enumeration of interactive learning environments that gives an idea on the technical scope of the field.

• authoring systems
• cognitive tools for learning
• computer-assisted language learning
• computer-based assessment systems
• computer-based training
• computer-mediated communications
• computer-supported collaborative learning
• distributed learning environments
• electronic performance support systems
• interactive learning environments
• interactive multimedia systems
• interactive simulations and games
• intelligent agents on the Internet
• intelligent tutoring systems
• microworlds
• virtual reality based learning systems

Note: Main-stream e-learning is a special case of computer-based training and computer-mediated communication. It also may include other elements like passive or interactive multimedia animations.

A short history

First large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other mediated materials. With evolution of technology, presentation-based technology based on the idea that people can learn contents trough aural and visual reception exist in many forms, e.g. streaming audio and video, PowerPoint presentations + voice-over. The 1950's led to 2 major still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed instruction" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970’s through the 1990’s. In a more simplified form they correspond to today's “e-contents” that often form the core of "e-learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS, ADL/Scorm and IEEE.

The 1980’s and 1990’s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments were learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext.

Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90’s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management.

In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, chat rooms, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use “blended” or hybrid designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g. drill & practise, exercises, projects etc.).

The 2000’s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories favouring “learning-in-context” scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of “integrated learning” to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g. workplace) settings.

Families of Educational Technologies

This section is under construction. DSchneider is not sure which categories to adopt and how to create a taxonomy. Basque and Lundgren-Cayrol (2003) analyzed 24 different typologies of ICT usage in schools !

Today we are facing a wide range of pedagogical strategies and available technologies. Classification schemes taking into account both dimensions can become very complex, e.g. Joyce (2000) or Reeves & Reeves (1998). We will present both simple and more complex attemps. Also note that pedagogical designs and technologies can be combined in a certain way, e.g. one can integrate activity-oriented courseware like a simulation within an content-oriented LMS.

Content vs. communication

We distinguish between 2 big families: (1) content or courseware oriented and (2) communication/activity oriented. This typology reflects 2 fundamentally different stances that can be found as well in research and practice.

1. Courseware oriented
   1. Contents with low interactivity: computer-based training (CBT), web-based training (WBT), Multimedia, main-stream E-learning including Learning technology systems like LMSs.
   2. Activity oriented: Computer-based learning, Microworlds, Simulations, Hypertext, (some) CSCL, Intelligent tutoring systems
2. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) oriented ===
   1. Activity-based and community oriented: C3MS (Community portals), Wikis where students write.
   2. Activity-based: LMSs like Moodle, Groupware,
   3. Cognitive tools: (some) CSCL, e.g. Writing-to-learn tools like Knowledge forum
   4. Communication tools (often combined with others): Chat, Forums, Videoconferencing

This distinction is similar to Schulmeister's e-learning types A and B.

According to three major pedagogical strategies

Baumgartner & Kalz (2004) that distinguished three major forms of pedagogies and associated technology that can be observed in current on-line teaching practice.

Table 1: Three major forms of pedagogies and associated technologies (adapted from Baumgartner & Kalz, 2004).

Dominant Strategy	Transfer (learning I)	Tutoring (learning II)	Coaching (learning III)
Knowledge type	Factual knowledge, "know-that"	Procedural knowledge, "know-how", problem solving, concepts	Social practice, "knowing in action"
Aims of Teaching	Transfer of propositional knowledge	Presentation of predetermined problems	Action in (complex and social) situations
Learning goal	to know, to remember	to do, to practice, to argue	to cope, to master
Assessment	Production of correct answers	Selection of correct methods and its use	Realization of adequate action strategies
Learning content type	Verbal knowledge, Memorization	Skill, Ability	Social Responsibility
Teaching and learning strategies and activities	to teach, to explain	to observe, to help, to demonstrate	to cooperate, to support
Preferred technologies	e-instruction using learning management systems (LMS) or learning content management systems (LCMS). Also referred to as web-based training (WBT). Multimedia presentations Computer-based training	Computer-based learning: simulations, microworlds, intelligent tutoring systems e-tutoring combined with e-instruction using LMSs computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) e-moderation: forums, weblogs, groupware including conferencing and application sharing	E-Coaching using Collaborative Content management systems (Portals, Wikis, etc.), collaborative mobile technology, Cognitive tools such as Knowledge Forums, etc.

According to interaction types

under construction

Moore (1989) distinguishes thre types of interaction in distance educationan that also can be useful to categorize educational technologies:

1. Student-content interaction refers to Courseware oriented activities, e.g. reading texts, working with interactive multimedia, produce assignments.
2. Student-instructor interaction refers to all things related to [[tutoring]
3. Student-student interaction refers to all kinds of collaborative learning

According to Lou et al. (2006:141) other more recently introduced categories (first three by Anderson, 2003) are:

1. instructor-instructor interaction
2. instructor-content interaction (e.g. authoring systems)
3. content-content interaction (e.g. automatic retrieval)
4. learner-interface interaction

Design Methodology

See:

• Instructional design method
• Design methodology
• The Category Category:Design methodologies

References

• Anderson,

• Baumgartner, P. & Kalz, M. (2004). Content Management Systeme aus bildungstechnologischer Sicht in Baumgartner, Peter; Häfele, Hartmut & Maier-Häfele, Kornelia: Content Management Systeme für e-Education. Auswahl, Potenziale und Einsatzmöglichkeiten, Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2004.

• Collins, A. (1992). Towards a Design Science of Education In E. Scanlon & T. O'Shea (eds.), New Directions in Educational Technology. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
• Joyce, B., Weil, M., Calhoun, E. : Models of teaching, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 0205389279

• Lachance, B., J.J. Lapointe et P. Marton. (1980). " Le domaine de la technologie éducative ", in La technologie au service de la formation, Québec: Actes du colloque du CIPTE, Ministère de l'Éducation, Gouvernement du Québec, Service général des moyens d'enseignement.

• Lapointe J. (1991) Réflexion sur le domaine de la technologie éducative http://www.sites.fse.ulaval.ca/reveduc/html/vol1/no1/reflex.html

• Lou, Yiping, Robert M. Bernard and Philip C. Abrami (2006). Media and Pedagogy in Undergrade Distance Education: A Theory-based Meta-Analysis of Empirical Literature. Educational Technology Research and Development 54 (2), 141-176 ISSN 1042-1629

• Moore, M (1998) Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education 3 (2), 1.6

• National Educational Technology Standards for Students, Connecting Curriculum and Technology [4]. This is a large and free Handbook

• Reeves, T.C., Reeves, P.M., Effective Dimensions of Interactive Learning on the World Wide Web, in Web-Based Instruction, Englewood Cliffs N.J. : Educational Technology Publications, 1998

Links

Associations

• Association for Educational Communications and Technology

• International Artificial Intelligence in Education Society

• International Society of the Learning Sciences

Journals

• Journal of Interactive Learning Research (JILR)

• The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (IJAIED), formerly Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (JAIE)

• The Journal of Learning Sciences.

• International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning.

Portals, repositories and links

• Martin Ryder's Instructional Technology Connections If you are interested in reading serious texts, this is and has been for as long as we can remember the best resource on the Internet.

• The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology (EET) is a collection of short multimedia articles on a variety of topics related to the fields of instructional design and education and training. (editor: Bob Hoffman)

• Wikipedia:Educational_technology

• LESTER, (Learning Science and Technology Repository), an online community and database focused on innovations in learning science and technology (LST), profiles innovative research projects and researchers

• e-teaching.org, German Portal for e-learning at university level.

• elearning-reviews.org, concise and thoughtful reviews (SCIL/UniSG)

• Judith V. Boettcher's Designing for Learning Starting Point Bibliography