Instructional design

Definition

• “Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.” Sara McNeil.

This article provides a short overview and points to more specialized articles.

What is Instructional Design Theory ?

According to Reighluth (1999: 6-7), Instructional Design-Theory is:

1. design-oriented (focussing on means to attain given goals for learning or development) and
2. identifies methods of instruction (ways to support and facilitate learning) and the situation in which these methods should and should not be used.
3. Methos of instruction can be broken down into more detailed component methods
4. Methods are probabilistic, rather than deterministic...

Sara McNeil defines the Instructional design from four different perspectives:

• Instructional Design as a Process: Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities.
• Instructional Design as a Discipline: Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.
• Instructional Design as a Science: Instructional Design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.
• Instructional Design as Reality: Instructional Design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.

Instructional Design Theory is related to learning theory, pedagogical theory and related pedagogic strategy but as Sara McNeil pointed out it's also a craft. Frequently, modern sophisticated instructional designs make use of educational technologies. Some authors even argue, that some of the more interesting designs can't be done without technology.

See also: Instructional design model and the Category:Instructional design models
See also: Instructional design method

Instructional Design as Instructional Technology

Instructional Design is primarly an engineering discipline (even if it is based on solid research), i.e. most instructional designs have as a job to design real courses. "As Instructional Technology it's the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems" (Berger and Kam).

Note that Instructional Technology is often used as synonym for Educational technology, but with the idea that:

Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development

In other words, Instruction Technology / Design etc. has a more "industrial" or engineering flavor than Educational Technology / Pedagogical Design.

What is good "main-stream" Instructional Design ?

DSchneider doesn't think that the Instructional Designer community necessarily possesses the "whole wisdom" needed for teaching or the design of learning environments and learning materials etc. However, Instructional Design Theory provides at least solid foundations against which you can evaluate a design.

Merril's (2002) First principles of instructions are a good example of principles than can be used both for design and evaluation:

1. Does the courseware relate to real world problems?
   1. ... show learners the task or the problem they will be able to do/solve ?
   2. are students engaged at problem or task level not just operation or action levels?
   3. ... involve a progression of problems rather than a single problem?
2. Does the courseware activate prior knowledge or experience?
   1. do learners have to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from past experience (as a foundation for new knowledge) ?
   2. does the same apply to the present courseware ?
   3. is there an opportunity to demonstrate previously acquired knowledge or skill ?
3. Does the courseware demonstrate what is to be learned ?
   1. Are examples consistent with the content being taught? E.g. examples and non-examples for concepts, demonstrations for procedures, visualizations for processes, modeling for behavior?
   2. Are learner guidance techniques employed? (1) Learners are directed to relevant information?, (2) Multiple representations are used for the demonstrations?, (3) Multiple demonstrations are explicitly compared?
   3. Is media relevant to the content and used to enhance learning?
4. Can learners practice and apply acquired knowledge or skill?
   1. Are the application (practice) and the post test consistent with the stated or implied objectives? (1) Information-about practice requires learners to recall or recognize information. (2) Parts-of practice requires the learners to locate, name, and/or describe each part. (3) Kinds-of practice requires learners to identify new examples of each kind. (4) How-to practice requires learners to do the procedure. (5) What-happens practice requires learners to predict a consequence of a process given conditions, or to find faulted conditions given an unexpected consequence.
   2. Does the courseware require learners to use new knowledge or skill to solve a varied sequence of problems and do learners receive corrective feedback on their performance?
   3. In most application or practice activities, are learners able to access context sensitive help or guidance when having difficulty with the instructional materials? Is this coaching gradually diminished as the instruction progresses?
5. Are learners encouraged to integrate (transfer) the new knowledge or skill into their everyday life?
   1. Is there an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill?
   2. Is there an opportunity to reflect-on, discuss, and defend new knowledge or skill?
   3. Is there an opportunity to create, invent, or explore new and personal ways to use new knowledge or skill?

Instructional design models and methods

We would like to distinguish between an instructional design method that defines how to organize the whole design process and an instructional design model that represents a class of a pedagogical design, i.e. how to teach, how to bring people to learn, etc.). It is not always easy to draw a line between "models" and "methods". This is particularly the case for frameworks like Instructional systems design (ISD).

Please note that specific models and methods are treated in other articles. Below we just will provide short deifnitions.

Instructional design methods

An instructional design method defines how to organize the whole design process (whereas an instructional design model represents a class of a pedagogical design, i.e. how to teach, how to bring people to learn, etc.

See also the various articles in the category design methods.

Instructional design models

An Instructional design model is a method, i.e. a general design rule on how to teach/bring to learn. Usually restricted to a given class of subjects and contexts. Instructional design models usually have a stronger focus on learning theory than instructional design methods.

[...] Models, like myths and metaphors, help us to make sense of our world. Whether derived from whim or from serious research, a model offers its user a means of comprehending an otherwise incomprehensible problem. An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an I.D. problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate her design task with a semblance of conscious understanding. Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. The value of a specific model is determined within the context of use. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity.

( Martin Ryder )

See also the various articles in the category instructional design models.

Instructional design and technology

Instructional design and educational technology depend on each other for several reasons:

• Large scale applications (e.g. instructional multi-media or e-learning) are very expensive. They need a good instructional design method which is based on sound instructional design models.
• Technology can only enhance the learning process it there is an improvement teaching strategies and methods (one does not learn better through a simple media effect).

Note: In e-learning technology, good "main-stream" instructional design is best represented by IMS Learning Design (LD).

Links

• Martin Ryder's Instructional Design Models

• Sara McNeil's definition

• Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design

References

• Dick, Walter O, Lou Carey & James O Carey (1994). Systematic Design of Instruction (6th edition).Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0205412742 (This seems to be a popular textbook but did not read it -- DSchneider)

• Mergel, Brenda (1998), Instructional Design & Learning Theory, University of Saskatchewan, on-line paper. HTML, PDF. This paper is a very nice introduction where the authors explores connections between instructional design and learning theory.

• Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43-59. [1]

• Reigeluth (ed.) (1999). Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, Vol. 2 (Instructional Design Theories & Models), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805828591 (Good buy -- DSchneider)

• Reigeluth (ed.) (1983). Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current Status. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0898592755 (A classic, still worth reading)