Simulation and gaming

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Definition

Simulation and Gaming refers to a series of instructional designs that use elements from simulation and gaming. Simulation and Gaming can be done with board games, computer assisted board games, or fully computerized environments.

Simulation and gaming is particular popular in business education. According to Hall (2011), “"Total enterprise" simulations or management or business games. They date back to 1957 when a group at the Rand Corporation (Bellman et al, 1957) created what is perhaps the first computerised business game (simulation).”

The Simulation & Gaming journal defines Simulation/gaming in its broadest meaning, “to encompass such areas as simulation, computerized simulation, internet simulation, gaming, simulation/gaming, serious games, educational games, training games, e-games, internet games, video games, policy exercises, day-in-the-life simulations, planning exercises, debriefing, analytic discussion, post-experience analysis, modeling, virtual reality, game theory, role-play, role-playing, play, active learning, experiential learning, learning from experience, toys, augmented reality, playthings, structured exercises, education games, alternative purpose games, edutainment, digital game-based learning, immersive learning, brain games, social impact games, games for change, games for good, synthetic learning environments, synthetic task environments.” (retrieved April 12, 2010).

DSchneider believes that Role Play Simulations belong to the same category

According to Dumlekar (2004) in the context of "Management simulations": “A simulation is a replica of reality. As a training program, it enables adult participants to learn through interactive experiences. Simulations contain elements of experiential learning and adult learning [...] Simulations would therefore be useful to learn about complex situations (where data is incomplete, unreliable or unavailable), where the problems are unfamiliar, and where the cost of errors in making decisions is likely to be high. Therefore, simulations offer many benefits. They accelerate and compress time to offer a foresight of a hazy future. They are experimental, experiential, and rigorous. They promote creativity amongst the participants, who develop a shared view of their learning and behaviors. Above all, making decisions have no real-life cost implications.”.

See also: Computer game, video game, microworld, tangible computing, simulation.

Educational benefits

According to Dukes (in the context of sociology teaching):

  1. They increase student motivation.
  2. They facilitate the affective aspect of learning.
  3. They enhance interpersonal relations and promote interpersonal reward structures for learning.
  4. They do at least as well as conventional techniques in achieving cognitive outcomes.
  5. They tend to produce improved communication and discussion within the classroom.
  6. They tend to produce a more integrated view of the broader context within which sociological concepts fall.
  7. They promote individual discovery in learning from the learner's own perspective.
In summary: They plug many gaps which conventional methods of instruction are unlikely to fill; they round out the learning experience.

Critique

Pittaway and Cope (2007) argue that “it is possible to simulate aspects of entrepreneurial learning, such as emotional exposure and situated learning, but not others”.

Types of simulation and gaming

Management simulations

  • “A simulation is a replica of actual events, presented in a manner with a specific purpose. A management simulation (MS) is a collection of business cases that narrate market, business and economic events. When used for training, participants seek to understand management concepts, and augment or experiment with the methodologies, tools, techniques and practices learnt at business schools or at other training platforms. The final goal is stated as a financial measure, with a supporting explanation. A software program translates management action (their decisions) into business results (financial and other reports).” Dumlekar (2004)

Business simulations

  • Often referred to as business simulation games or business games, business simulations are mostly associated with computer-based learning, managerial microworlds, and serious games. They are also sometimes being referred to as dynamic case studies. Business simulations are used in business schools to highlight theories and concepts taught during undergraduate and postgraduate courses. Business simulations are also used to improve training of business managers on subjects such as finance, strategy or operations. They generally require participants to input decisions into the simulation in an iterative way. Business simulations are available as systems which are a representation of one or more functional areas of a business organization such as: purchasing, production, distribution, finance, marketing, human resources, research & development. Business simulations are classified by the following criterions:
Mode of conduct The setting in which the participants carry out the simulation Online: virtual environments, games, websites In-person: board games, role-play activities Blended: both virtual and in-person elements
Subject matter The content of the simulation Functional: one or more functions of the business are simulated (e.g. the production function) Total: all or most of the business functions are simulated (e.g. a hotel) Topical: a certain topic or phenomena is simulated (e.g. a corporate takeover)
Participation options The options made available to participants as to how they can participate Team-based: individuals participate in teams, often representing one firm in a competitive marketplace Individual: participants can carry out the simulation by themselves, with no need for other individuals.
Interactivity The degree to which participants interact with the simulation or the other participants High Interaction: results are calculated by the simulation with no further input required by the participants or the simulation instructors. Communication tools such as chat or forums are present

Low Interaction: simulation results are calculated by the simulation instructor, there is little to no interaction between the simulation participants.

Examples and instructional design models

Examples

  • Leading edge paper products, Acomplex management simulation. Cambridge Management Centres (1990; updated 2002). PDF
  • SimProjet. Hybrid simulator for teaching project management (in french)
  • KHS commercial, in German (select Heraklit-Planspiele).

Instructional design models

Matching learning types and games

  • Prensky (2001) presents a table suggesting the types of learning that can be promoted by various games styles. PDF

Links

  • Serious Games Initiative - Community/News Portal. The Serious Games Initiative is focused on uses for games in exploring management and leadership challenges facing the public sector. (some of their articles concern S&G)
  • Games for Change - Games for Change (G4C) provides support, visibility and shared resources to organizations and individuals using digital games for social change.
  • vernetzt-denken.de (includes some information in German, e.g. a glossary about systemic thinking).
  • Role Playing in education - By A. Blattner, MD. Review of Role Playing, importance, applications, history, problems, future implications.

References

  • Angehrn Albert A. (2006) Advanced Social Simulations: Innovating the way we learn how to manage change in organizations; International Journal of Information Technology Education, forthcoming. (PDF)
  • Angehrn Albert A. , J.E.M. Atherton (1999); A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Development Programmes for Change Agents; Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS'99), Copenhagen, Denmark. PDF
  • Angehrn Albert A. , Yves Doz, Jill Atherton (1995); Business Navigator: The Next Generation of Management Development Tools; Focus, No. 1, pp. 24-31. [1]
  • Bellman, Richard, Charles Clark, Cliff Craft, Don O. Malcolm and Franc Ricciardi (1957). On the construction of a multi-stage multi-person Business Game, The RAND Corporation.
  • Biggs, William D. (1990), Introduction to computerized business management simulations, in Guide to Business Gaming and Experiential Learning, ed. James W. Gentry, Nichols/GP Publishing, East Brunswick
  • Crookall, D., Klabbers J.H.G., Coote A., Saunders D., Cecchini A. and Delle Piane A. (editors), Simulation-Gaming in Education and Training, Oxford: Pergamon, 1988. ISBN 0080364659
  • Dumblekar, Vinod. (2004). Management simulations: Tests of effectiveness. Online posting on Simulation & Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Theory, Practice and Research web site. HTML
  • Fripp, John (1993) Learning through Simulations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, London
  • Gold, Steven (2003) The Design of a Business Simulation using a System-Dynamics-Based Approach Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Exercises Volume 30 [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Goosen, Kenneth R.; Ron Jensen and Robert Wells (2001). Purpose and learning benefits of simulations: a design and development perspective, Simulation and Gaming, 32(1) 21 - 39. 10.1177/104687810103200104
  • Gosen, Jerry and Washbush, John, (2004). A Review of Scholarship on Assessing Experiential Learning Effectiveness, Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 35, No. 2, 270-293 DOI: 10.1177/1046878104263544. Abstract PDF (Access restricted)
  • Gosen, Jerry (2004) The Influence of Variables easily controlled by the Instructor/Administrator on Simulation Outcomes: in particular, the variable, reflection, Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 31, 2004
  • Hall, Jeremy and Benita Cox (1993) Computerised Management Games: the feedback process and servo-mechanism analogy, Simulation & Gaming Yearbook 1993 eds Fred Percival and Danny Saunders, Kogan Page London
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. and Benita M Cox (1994) Complexity is it really that simple, Systems Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Exercises Volume 21 Precha Thavikulwat & John D. Overby (eds.), College of Business Administration, Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (1994a) Computerised Tutor Support Systems: the tutor's role, needs and tasks, The Simulation & Gaming Yearbook Volume 2 eds. Roger Armstrong, Fred Percival and Danny Saunders Kogan Page London.
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (1995b) Computerised Business Simulations: The Need for Unfriendly Interfaces Journal of Intelligent Systems Volume 5: Nos 2-4, Freund Publishing, London
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (2005) Computer business simulation design: the rock pool method, Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005, [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (2007) Computer Business Simulation Design: Novelty and Complexity Issues Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 34, 2007 Reprinted in the Bernie Keys Library, 8th Edition [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (2008) Corporate Cartooning: The Art of Computerized Business Simulation Design Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, © 2011 Jeremy J. S. B. Hall References [V0.0 25/01/11] Page 5, Volume 35, 2009, [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (2009) Existing and Emerging Business Simulation-Game Design Movements, Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 36, 2009 Reprinted in the Bernie Keys Library, 9th Edition [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Ip, Albert & Roni Linser (2001). Simulated Worlds: Rapid Generation of Web-Based Role-Play, AusWeb01, the Seventh Australian World Wide Web Conference, Opal Cover Resort, Coffs Harbour, 21-25 April 2001, HTML
  • Jerry Seay, Robert Scott, Small Library, Education and Simulation/Gaming and Computers HTML
  • Jones, K. What happens when students design and run their own simulations? Simulation & Gaming (1998) Volume 29
  • Klabbers, Jan H. G (2006). The Magic Circle: Principles Of Gaming & Simulation, Modeling and Simulation for Learning and Instruction volume 1, Sense Publishers, ISBN 978-90-879000-6-9
  • Klabbers, Jan H. G. (2003). Gaming and Simulation: Principles of a Science of Design, Simulation and Gaming, 34 (4) 569 - 591.
  • Klein E. E. and P. J. Herskovitz, Philosophical foundations of computer simulation validation, Simulation Gaming, September 1, 2005; 36(3): 303 - 329. Abstract PDF (Access restricted)
  • Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in education and research. Journal of Management, 16, 307-336.
  • Linser, R., Naidu, S. & Ip, A. (1999, December). Pedagogical Foundations of Web-based Simulations in Political Science. Paper presented at ASCILITE 99, the 16th Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, 14-16 December 1999, AUSTRALIA.
  • Linser, Roni & Albert Ip (2004). Creating Learning Opportunities Using an RPS Authoring Tool, AusWeb '04, The Tenth Australian World Wide Web Conference, Seaworld Nara Resort, Gold Coast,, from 3rd to 7th July 2004, HTML
  • Maier, F. H., & Gröössler, A. (2000). What are we talking about? A taxonomy of computer simulations to support learning. System Dynamics Review, 16, 135-148.
  • Manzoni, Jean-Francois & Albert A. Angehrn (1997). Understanding Organizational Dynamics of IT-Enabled Change : A Multimedia Simulation Approach, Journal of Management Information Systems / Winter 1997-98, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 109-140. PDF
  • Miller, Craig, Nancy Nentl and Ruth Zietlow (2010) About Simulations and Bloom’s Learning Taxonomy Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Exercises Volume 37. [Available from http://absel.org]
  • Miller, R and T Leroux-Demers (1992) Business Simulations: Validity and Effectiveness, Simulations/Games for Learning 22 4
  • Prensky, M. (2001). Types of Learning and Possible Game Styles. Digital Game-Based Learning. McGraw-Hill. PDF
  • Prensky, Marc (2005) Complexity Matters: Mini-games are Trivial – but “Complex” Games are not, Educational Technology, Vol 45, No 4 July-Aug 2005
  • Quinn, Clark N. and Marcia L. Conner (2005) Engaging Learning: Designing e-learning Simulation Games, John Wiley & Sons, San Francisco
  • Randel, Josephine M.; Barbara A. Morris; C. Douglas Wetzel and Betty V. Whitehill (1992). The effectiveness of games for educational purposes: a review of recent research. Simulation and Gaming 23 (3). 261 - 276. 10.1177/1046878192233001
  • Romme, Georges, A. (2003). Learning Outcomes of Microworlds for Management Education, Management Learning, Vol. 34, No. 1, 51-61. DOI:10.1177/1350507603034001130
  • Romme, A. Georges L. and Roger Putzel (2003). Designing Management Education: Practice What You Teach, Simulation and Gaming, v.34 n.4, p.512-530.
  • Romme, Georges, A. (2004). Perceptions of the value of microworld simulation: research note, Simulation and Gaming, 35 (3) 427-436.
  • Scherpereel, Christopher M. (2005). hanging mental models: Business simulation exercises, Simulation and Gaming, 36 (3), 388 - 403. 10.1177/1046878104270005.
  • Schönwald, Ingrid , Dieter Euler, Albert Angehrn, Sabine Seufert (2006). EduChallenge Learning Scenarios, Designing and Evaluating Learning Scenarios with a Team-Based Simulation on Change Management in Higher Education, SCIL Report 8, January 2006. [2]
  • de Jong, Tom (ed.) (2003), Knowledge Management Interactive Training Systems (KITS), final report, PDF
  • Jacques, D. (1995). Games, simulations and case studies: A review. In: D. Sauders (Ed.), The simulation and gaming yearbook. Volume 3. Games and simulations for business. London: Kogan.

Acknowledgement

A large part of the bibliography was found in Jeremy Hall's bibliography (2011), part of his free online book "Corporate Cartooning, The Art, Science and Craft of Computer Business Simulation Design. (2010-2012).

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