Programmed instruction

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Definition

Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used. (cited from Encyclopedia.com).

Theory and history

Programmed instruction is based on Skinner's "operant conditionning", a (behaviorist theory stating that learning is change in behavior, i.e. the individual's reponse to events (stimuli). Behvaior can be conditionned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns.

According to Greg Kearsley:

Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning

On side note, it is interesting that Skinner argued strongly against teaching that is based on punishement. According to Kristinsdóttir, << In a chapter of his book 1968 Why teachers fail he argued that formal education is usually based on 'aversive control'. Teaching rests on punishment and ridicule for unsuitable behaviour rather than showing a consideration for the shaping and reinforcement of responses to be learned. He also said that lessons and examinations are designed to show what pupils do not know and cannot do, rather than to expose and build upon what they do know and are able to learn. Therefore, he argued, teachers fail to shape their children's behaviour sufficiently, leading to inappropriate learning or to learned responses that are quickly forgotten (Skinner, 1968). >>

The first teaching machine was invented by Sydney L. Pressey in 1934, but the practical methods of programmed instruction were not developed until the 1950s, thanks to Skinner who introduced the “teaching machine”.

However, Skinner’ interpretation differed from Pressey’s in many ways. Skinner stated that the student should compose his response on his own, rather than choose it among a large range of possibilities, because the responses should not be recognized but recalled. Moreover, the machine should present information in a designed sequence of steps.

Those who think (and are still thinking) that programmed instruction isolate students, must consider that the machine brings them into contact with the people who composed the material and with a large number of other students.

Programmed instruction consists of a network of statements and tests, which direct the student to new statements depending on his pattern of errors. [1]

In programmed instruction, the subject is the student itself, the aim is his/her understanding of the material and the reinforcement or punishment refers to satisfaction or disappointment, resulting from the comparison of the student’s answers with the answers given by the computer.

Teaching machines did not allow students to proceed in their tasks unless they understood the materials. The machines helped students to give the correct answer by a logical presentation of material [2] and by "hinting, prompting, suggesting, and so on, derived from an analysis of verbal behaviour" (Skinner, “Why teachers fail”, 1958, p. 971).

Even if in his book “Why teachers fail”, Skinner argued that teachers fail to shape their students’ behaviour sufficiently, he stated (1954) that: “If the teacher is to take advantage of recent advances in the study of learning, she must have the help of mechanical devices.” Concluding his analysis he also argued that mechanized instruction should be integrated into all schools, not as a replacement for, but as an adjunct to the teacher.

By saying so, he did not deny the importance of the teacher in the learning process.

Many objections to Skinner’s programs have been raised during these years. The most important is that people think that the answers given by the machine are only “indicators of success” which do not constitute a complete learning program. However, students are obliged to determine on their own the success of their research and problem-solving efforts. All this is considered to be minimal and the starting point of any problem. So, maybe, the real benefit of programmed instruction is precisely the effort made by the student which can be seen as a sort of grounding for developing the ability to think and to learn on his own. Ability that will be achieved only thanks to the involvement of the teacher in class.

At the beginning, programmed instruction was thought for students particularly gifted, in order to prevent them to waste their time by listening things they already knew, and that could be useless for their learning process. Computers prevent students from repeating the same material and facilitate the review of previous lessons, so, each student can learn in accordance with his own level. All this is possible in class, where the role of teachers is once more important for stimulating discussion and improving the quality of education itself. Moreover, the fact that the student is among his friends avoids the risk of socially isolating him as homeschooling does.

Some time later, the programmed instruction movement presented the concept of interactive text and extended this kind of instruction to all school subjects. So, computer-assisted instruction could assist students, by allowing them to test their abilities and to mark their improvements, supplementing the activities in class and helping to develop new skills independently. But, it was economically impossible to put a system like that into place. As a consequence, programmed instruction seemed to sink into oblivion. Nowadays, thanks to technological progresses, media such as radio, television and computer has been exploited for educational purposes.

Even if it might still be difficult for companies to create these systems today, they could use the technology of wikis that succeeded in creating Wikipedia and needed only a nominal fee in just a few years. Wiki technology offers a great deal of opportunities based on the work of an increasing number of volunteers. In addition, the learning material can be translated in many languages in order to let people consult it for free and at home.

The range of programs has developed a lot, concerning spelling, reading, arithmetic, foreign languages, psychology, physics and much more. Some programs enable advancement only in a fixed order, others give additional information at the appropriate level whether a correct or incorrect answer is given. [3]