Educational technology

Goals of Educational Technology

Educational technology research always had an ambitious agenda. Sometimes it “only” aims at increased efficiency or effectiveness of current practise, but frequently it aims at pedagogical change. While it can be considered as a design science it also addresses fundamental issues of learning, teaching and social organization and therefore makes use of the full range of modern social science and life sciences methodology.

"Technology provides us with powerful tools to try out different designs, so that instead of theories of education, we may begin to develop a science of education. But it cannot be an analytic science like physics or psychology; rather it must be a design science more like aeronautics or artificial intelligence. For example, in aeronautics the goal is to elucidate how different designs contribute to lift, drag manoeuvrability, etc. Similarly, a design science of education must determine how different designs of learning environments contribute to learning, cooperation, motivation, etc." (Collins, 1992:24).

Technology is therefore both a tool and a catalyser and it can become a medium through which change can happen.

“Educational technologists would not therefore consider the computer as just another piece of equipment. If educational technology is concerned with thinking carefully about teaching and learning, then a computer has a contribution to make irrespective of its use as a means of implementation, for the design of computer based learning environments gives us a new perspective on the nature of teaching and learning and indeed on general educational objectives.

(O'Shea and Self: 1983: 59).

History

First large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other mediated materials. With evolution of technology, presentation-based technology based on the idea that people can learn contents trough aural and visual reception exist in many forms, e.g. streaming audio and video, PowerPoint presentations + voice-over. The 1950's led to 2 major still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed instruction" focussing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as "Computer-aided Instruction" (CAI) and "Computer-based Training" (CBT) in the 1970’s through the 1990’s. In a more simplified form they correspond to today’s “e-contents” that often form the core of "e-learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS, ADL/Scorm and IEEE.

The 1980’s and 1990’s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the label “Computer Based Learning” (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning theories, these environments focussed on teaching both abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments were learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext.

Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80’s and became popular by the mid-90’s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer Based Learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer Mediated Communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management.

In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, chat rooms, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use “blended” or hybrid designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g. drill & practise, exercises, projects etc.).

The 2000’s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories favouring “learning-in-context” scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of “integrated learning” to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g. workplace) settings.

Typologies of Educational Technology

Today we are facing a wide range of pedagogical strategies and available technologies. Classification schemes taking into account both dimensions can become very complex, e.g. Joyce (2000) or Reeves & Reeves (1998). We therefore conclude our short overview with a simple summary table adapted from Baumgartner & Kalz (2004) that distinguished three major forms of pedagogies and associated technology that can be observed in current on-line teaching practise.

Table 1: Three major forms of pedagogies and associated technologies (adapted from Baumgartner & Kalz, 2004).

Dominant Strategy	Transfer (learning I)	Tutoring (learning II)	Coaching (learning III)
Knowledge type	Factual knowledge, "know-that"	Procedural knowledge, "know-how", problem solving, concepts	Social practice, "knowing in action"
Aims of Teaching	Transfer of propositional knowledge	Presentation of predetermined problems	Action in (complex and social) situations
Learning goal	to know, to remember	to do, to practise, to argue	to cope, to master
Assessment	Production of correct answers	Selection of correct methods and its use	Realization of adequate action strategies
Learning content type	Verbal knowledge, Memorization	Skill, Ability	Social Responsibility
Teaching and learning strategies and activities	to teach, to explain	to observe, to help, to demonstrate	to cooperate, to support
Preferred technologies	e-Instruction: Learning Management System, Learning Content Management Systems. Multimedia presentations	Simulations, micro-worlds, CSCL e-Tutoring, e-Moderation: Forums, WebLogs, Groupware including conferencing and application sharing	e-Coaching: Collaborative Content Management Systems (Portals, Wikis, etc.), Knowledge Forums, collaborative mobile technology.

References

• Baumgartner, P. & Kalz, M. (2004). Content Management Systeme aus bildungstechnologischer Sicht

in Baumgartner, Peter; Häfele, Hartmut & Maier-Häfele, Kornelia: Content Management Systeme für e-Education. Auswahl, Potenziale und Einsatzmöglichkeiten, Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2004.

• Collins, A. (1992). Towards a Design Science of Education In E. Scanlon & T. O'Shea (eds.), New

Directions in Educational Technology. Berlin: Springer Verlag.