Methodology tutorial - structure of a master thesis: Difference between revisions

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Notice: A working hypothesis is not a scientific hypothesis that can be tested. It's just a more aggressively formulated general research question. "Real" hypothesis exist in theory-testing approaches. They are grounded in theory and can be properly tested with data. Hypothesis are always presented after the theory part and then even further operationalize after/in the methods chapter.
Notice: A working hypothesis is not a scientific hypothesis that can be tested. It's just a more aggressively formulated general research question. "Real" hypothesis exist in theory-testing approaches. They are grounded in theory and can be properly tested with data. Hypothesis are always presented after the theory part and then even further operationalize after/in the methods chapter.
<br clear="all"/>
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=== Principal chapters ===
=== Principal chapters ===


* Curieusement c’est ici qu’il existe le plus de '' variété'' .
It is difficult to give some useful advice about the principal chapters, since there exists a large variety.
* Elle dépend fortement de l’'' approche méthodologique''
* Parfois il faut respecter un certain '' agencement'' des chapitres.


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Dans toutes les études empiriques, il faut:
Certain research types / aproaches have strong guidelines for content structuring. However, we can try formulate some general principles.


* '' discuter et analyser'' '' vos données''
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] In all empirical studis, you should:
* se '' confronter'' '' au savoir'' qui existe dans le domaine
* '' mettre en rapport'' '' résultats et questions/hypothèses formulées'' au début
* '' éviter'' de longement réciter des '' indices'' statistiques
** utilisez des tables et figures pour cela ! (votre texte doit être '' lisible'' !! )


Conseils pour la partie “théorique” d’un travail empirique:
* '''present''' data and results
* '''discuss''' results
* '''link''' results with the questions and hypothèses
* '''confront''' results with '''existing''' knowledge


* Souvent on sépare la “discussion de littérature” de la présentation de la recherche
However, the order is not necessarily the same.
proprement dite: légitime pour des raisons de clarté.


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Il '' faut revenir sur la discussion de la
; Writing Style
littérature '' dans les parties plus “pratiques” (ancrage de votre travail dans le savoir
Avoid including lots of statistical indices in your sentences, rather use tables for this (except in experimental psychology, where text is supposed to be unreadable)
de la discipline)
 
* L’omission est une erreur fréquemment observée. Si discuter une théorie ou d’autres
travaux empiriques ne sert à rien pour votre recherche, il '' ne faut pas en parler'' !!


; The literature review chapter
Usually, the review is done in chapter two. However, there may exist exceptions (e.g. in history)


But in any case this chapter should be '''used'''. Research questions are presented in detail after the review and they must be gounded in the literature review. Research results have to be confronted to the theory later on (e.g. after or during presentation and discussion of the results). This is an often observed problem in master thesis. This principle also works the other way round. If you don't use theory, do not present it.


=== Conclusion ===
=== Conclusion ===


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Rappelez les '' résultats principaux'' de votre
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Recall the ''principal results'' of your research
recherche.
 
** on peut aussi être contre avec l’argument que cela entraîne un simplification qui peut
faire croire que êtes peu différencié.
 
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Discutez la '' porté des résultats'' à plusieurs
niveaux, on peut:
 
** discuter la (les) '' validité'' (s) de vos résultats,
** mettre en avant des questions auxquelles vous '' n’avez pas répondu '' (et pourquoi),
** s’interroger sur la '' généralisation'' des résultats,
** voire même '' formuler une théorie'' qui nécessiterait d’autres travaux empiriques pour
la tester et/ou développer.
 
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] '' Comparez vos résultats'' à ceux d’autres études
empiriques
 
** dans le domaine et/ou avec les '' connaissances théoriques'' du domaine<br /> (si cela
n’a pas été fait dans la partie principale)
 
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Vous pouvez formuler de '' nouvelles questions'' .
 
** Souvent vous serez cités parce que vous avez mis le doigt sur des '' choses
intéressantes'' qui n’ont pas encore été étudiées <br /> (qui par example peuvent devenir
un sujet de thèse)
 
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Vous pouvez discuter de l’'' utilité pratique'' de
votre travail.


** (surtout si le travail n’a pas de vocation principalement pratique)
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Discuss the scope of your results
** si votre travail était pratique, rappelez encore une fois vos '' suggestions
* You may discuss the ''external validity'' (i.e. attempt some generalization)
principales'' aux destinataires du travail.
* Discuss questions for which you don't have answers or things you didn't implement (and why)
* You could ''formulate a new theory'' that could be refined/tested in further work
* You can formulate new interesting research questions. Often the value of a master thesis is to generate new ideas for research that your adviser can pick up or that you could turn into a Ph.D. thesis :)
* You can globally compare your work to other empirical studies (if not already done so)
* You may discuss the practical usefulness of your work (in particular if your thesis does not have practical aim)
* If you produced an applied thesis, you may recall major recommandations (e.g. a set of design rules for practionners)


=== List of sources ===


If necessary, this chapter will include a list of all your primary sources, e.g.
* laws and other legal or paralegal documents
* historical sources


=== Liste des sources ===
You also may include these in the bibliography.
 
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Indication de toutes les sources primaires
 
** (textes de lois, règlements, etc.) que vous utilisez
** peut faire partie de la bibliographie.
 
 


=== Indexes ===
=== Indexes ===


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Indexes d’auteurs et de concepts
You may (but usually must no) produce and index of concepts and authors. It will help the quick reader to find interestings "spots" and also give an idea about the way you tackled your research.
 
** surtout lorsqu’il s’agit d’un travail important sur le plan théorique.
** permettent à un lecteur pressé de mieux “surfer” votre travail
** (utile, mais pas obligatoire)
 


Most word processors can do this fairly easily (even Word)


=== Annexes ===
=== Annexes ===


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Tout ce qui n’est pas nécessaire à la compréhension
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Annexes are important and include everything that is not strictly necessary for the presentation and the discussion of empirical results.
 
** mais qui permet au lecteur de mieux reproduire et comprendre vos analyses empiriques.
** On peut pour des raisons de place pas y inclure tout le matériel d’analyse (données,
entretiens, textes primaires, etc.). Faites un choix ou éventuellement des résumés.
 


Typically, it may include:
* all research artifacts (such experimental materials, survey questions, etc.)
* some raw data (e.g. stories told be individuals), most often just excerpts
* Intermediate analysis data like descriptive statistics, qualitative summary tables, etc.)


=== Bibliographie ===
=== Bibliography ===


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] doit contenir l’ensemble des textes scientifiques
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] It must include each an every reference you directly or indirectly used.
ou autres auxquels vous avez fait référence.


** Il ne faut pas gonfler une bibliographie avec des ouvrages non cités. Cette pratique
You do not need to include any other references, i.e. texts you didn't use.
est inutile et mal vue


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] '' Respectez une certaine norme'' (vous pouvez
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] You must respect a certain '''standard''' (and be coherent)
choisir) et restez cohérents !


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Il faut commencer à faire une '' bibliographie dès
[[Image:icon-light-bulb.png]] Tip: Start doing the bibliography right from the start.
le débu'' t.


** A chaque fois que vous lisez un texte, insérez-le dans la bibliographie!
* As soon as you use a text, include it !
** Il existe des logiciels comme EndNotes pour gérer la bibliographie
* You may learn how to use a [[reference manager]], although for a typical master thesis you also can do it "by hand".


=== Citations ===
=== Citations ===

Revision as of 14:14, 10 October 2008

This article or section is currently under construction

In principle, someone is working on it and there should be a better version in a not so distant future.
If you want to modify this page, please discuss it with the person working on it (see the "history")

(translation under way ....)

This is part of the methodology tutorial

Introduction

Learning goals
  • Understand that a master thesis is an argument
  • Learn how to sequence a thesis
  • Understand that you may have to respect certain standards
Prerequisites
  • Methodology tutorial - the research plan
  • Most other tutorials
Moving on
  • Do other research :)
Level and target population
  • Beginners
Quality
  • low, needs translation

Icon-hand-right.png A thesis is an “argument”

In other words: The organization of the written theses has nothing to do with the organization of the research plan or its little section on planning. In particular: Icon-hand-right.png A research design (i.e. the core of a research plan) is not a list of research phases nor a summary of the written thesis.

  • A research plan (i.e. the research design) defines and organizes your work according to research logical critiera.
  • The research planning (i.e. the little section at the end of your research plan) organizes your time according to workpackages and deliverables.
  • Research is done and usually you don’t tell people your personal experience with this, i.e. the thesis is not story. It presents the results of your research (including a literature review and and methodolical explanation on how you did it)

The structure of your thesis if defined by two main elements

  1. The research type/approach and related methodological criteria
  2. Some idea of rhetorics

Icon-hand-right.png A reader must understand your objectives, the questions and your anwsers (results) and finally how you did it.

Presentation and typographic structure

Let's first a look at some superficial presentation issues.

The word processor

Start by admitting that you don't know how to use a word processor. Don't feel ashamed. Most people don't. E.g. I had to write a wiki entry about Microsoft Word before writing a larger text. I usually use FrameMaker which is very different because it was designed for people that write real text and I had to make a real effort to adapt to MS Word. - Daniel K. Schneider

Here is a list of "must know" things:

  • Define styles (and make sure word doesn't modify them or adds new ones)
  • Automatically create tables of contents and figures
  • Create indexes
  • Automaticall number titles
  • Create stable numbered lists

Icon-warning.png Don't loose days with repetitive re-fomatting.

There exist two "formatting" strategies
  • Either learn how to create a good list of styles (you may need between 15 and 30 for a master thesis depending on your research type
  • Ignore my advice, but then only spend your last day with manual formatting.
Professionals do it this way
  • Each type of paragraph has its own style
  • Never use TABS or empty lines (e.g. paragraphs are separated by space, not an empty line, so add horizonal space to the paragraph style element definition).
Your list of styles

You need at least the following elements:

  • Numbered Chapter, numbered section, numbered sub-section and unnumberd sub-section. If you use MS Word, just define styles for heading 1 to heading 4.
  • List elements (bullet list items and enumerated items). You may, but usually don't have to define these at two levels
  • Normal paragraphs
  • Citation paragraphs (indented)
  • A style for fixed formats if you plan to present code
  • One ore more good table styles
  • Figure captions

Titles et sections

Here is some advice about titles and sections

  • The table of contents not only is a navigation tool but it indirectly defines your argumentation flow. This is why wording of titles and structure is important.

Do not use too many section levels (like 12.3.4.1.a). Your thesis is not a military or administrative operations manual, but a flow of connected ideas.

  • Too many levels will make orientation difficult for the reader. He won't understand where he is.
  • You may add unnumbered titles at the section or sub-section level or maybe use something like (a) .... (1) ....
  • Each numbered sub-section represents an important topic
  • Titles should summarize a topic (without being too long)

You have to find a compromise between:

  • flow of argumentation (avoid sub-titles because the "cut" intro a text)
  • structure (use sub-titles to separate topics)
  • readability (use un-numbered sub-titles to structure contents that stretch over several pages)

Layout

There exist several schools of thought. Make sure to consult official guidelines too !

Page numbering

Either just number from 0 to n or the more sophisticate following scheme:

  • Roman numbers for preface, table of contents etc.
  • Normal (arabic) numbers for the main part
  • Something like A-1, etc. for annexes.
Headers
  • On top of left pages you should put the current chapter title
  • On top of right pages you should put the current section title

Notice: In MS Word 2003 this is painstaking labour, so you may skip this. But any real word processor can do this really easily.

Line length
  • Don't write long lines ! Readers will get lost
  • Simply use decent margins and don't use small fonts (10pt is too small)
  • You may indent titles to the left (certainly not to the right as some Word default styles will do)
Some "modern additions"
  • Use boxes to present "special information" like case summaries or important conclusions.
  • Use side headers (also very difficult to do in Word 2003).
Figures an tables
  • Label and number each of these. If you work with a real word processor, let them float to the top or the bottom of the page. If you use Word, you can do this manually (but only the day before you turn it in).

The organization of a thesis

Here are the most important parts of an academic piece:

Elements Importance Main functions
Foreword * Personnal Context
Table of contents ** Navigation
Abstract * Main objective, result and scope
Introduction *** Objectives, global approach
Principal part ** (depends on your research type)
Conclusion *** Summary of results, further work and scope
List of sources * Data anchoring
Indexes * Navigation
Bibliography ** Theorectical anchoring
Annexes * Presentation of detailed data, materials, etc.

Foreword

Icon-hand-right.png The foreword is not part of your thesis.

You may use it to:

  • thank people
  • explain why you have chosen this subject
  • (maybe) excuse yourself for things to didn't do
  • annonce some followup

Icon-hand-right.png Things that relate to your work belong to the introduction

Table of contents of tables and figures

Icon-hand-right.png Mandatory

  • Position: At start and after the foreword
  • Must match titles in the text (this should be obvious). Even Word can generate this easily.
  • You also should add table for the figures and the tables. This will allow people finding synthetic information.

Abstract

  • This is often mandatory
  • If it is not, you also may summarize your thesis as a paragraph in the introduction

Introduction

Icon-hand-right.png The introduction (as well as the conclusion) is the most important chapter of your thesis

  • People will read this first and they should clearly understant what do did. Make sure that they

find your subject interesting...

Icon-hand-right.png A reader must understand:

Elements Details
The big question .... summarizes your subject, i.e. what you wanted to find out.
.... implicitely or explicity defines a scope
The "language" .... which major concepts you use, "important definitions
The general approach .... research type, global approach, principal methods used
.... the structure of your thesis

In general, the introduction includes:

Icon-hand-right.png

A description of your research subject (including the big question).


Icon-hand-right.png

A short discussion of the interest of your work and its scope (including what you will not do).


Icon-hand-right.png

A synthetic list of research questions and/or working hypothesis (if your research is rather theory-finding). Alternatively, they may appear after the literature review part.


Icon-hand-right.png

A list of some important definitions, e.g. an explanation of the words you use in the title of thesis or the big question. You also can do this in the literature review.


Icon-hand-right.png

A presentation/discussion of the global approach, unless you dedicate a special section to this. In this case you should just brievely describe it in a single short paragraph.


Icon-hand-right.png

A short guide for the reader. It will help the reader finding things and also show that you can provide a rationale for the adopted structure.


Icon-hand-right.png

An introduction of the object(s) you study. E.g. if you do some policy implementation research, you may present the context and legal basis.


Notice: A working hypothesis is not a scientific hypothesis that can be tested. It's just a more aggressively formulated general research question. "Real" hypothesis exist in theory-testing approaches. They are grounded in theory and can be properly tested with data. Hypothesis are always presented after the theory part and then even further operationalize after/in the methods chapter.

Principal chapters

It is difficult to give some useful advice about the principal chapters, since there exists a large variety.

Certain research types / aproaches have strong guidelines for content structuring. However, we can try formulate some general principles.

Icon-hand-right.png In all empirical studis, you should:

  • present data and results
  • discuss results
  • link results with the questions and hypothèses
  • confront results with existing knowledge

However, the order is not necessarily the same.

Writing Style

Avoid including lots of statistical indices in your sentences, rather use tables for this (except in experimental psychology, where text is supposed to be unreadable)

The literature review chapter

Usually, the review is done in chapter two. However, there may exist exceptions (e.g. in history)

But in any case this chapter should be used. Research questions are presented in detail after the review and they must be gounded in the literature review. Research results have to be confronted to the theory later on (e.g. after or during presentation and discussion of the results). This is an often observed problem in master thesis. This principle also works the other way round. If you don't use theory, do not present it.

Conclusion

Icon-hand-right.png Recall the principal results of your research

Icon-hand-right.png Discuss the scope of your results

  • You may discuss the external validity (i.e. attempt some generalization)
  • Discuss questions for which you don't have answers or things you didn't implement (and why)
  • You could formulate a new theory that could be refined/tested in further work
  • You can formulate new interesting research questions. Often the value of a master thesis is to generate new ideas for research that your adviser can pick up or that you could turn into a Ph.D. thesis :)
  • You can globally compare your work to other empirical studies (if not already done so)
  • You may discuss the practical usefulness of your work (in particular if your thesis does not have practical aim)
  • If you produced an applied thesis, you may recall major recommandations (e.g. a set of design rules for practionners)

List of sources

If necessary, this chapter will include a list of all your primary sources, e.g.

  • laws and other legal or paralegal documents
  • historical sources

You also may include these in the bibliography.

Indexes

You may (but usually must no) produce and index of concepts and authors. It will help the quick reader to find interestings "spots" and also give an idea about the way you tackled your research.

Most word processors can do this fairly easily (even Word)

Annexes

Icon-hand-right.png Annexes are important and include everything that is not strictly necessary for the presentation and the discussion of empirical results.

Typically, it may include:

  • all research artifacts (such experimental materials, survey questions, etc.)
  • some raw data (e.g. stories told be individuals), most often just excerpts
  • Intermediate analysis data like descriptive statistics, qualitative summary tables, etc.)

Bibliography

Icon-hand-right.png It must include each an every reference you directly or indirectly used.

You do not need to include any other references, i.e. texts you didn't use.

Icon-hand-right.png You must respect a certain standard (and be coherent)

Icon-light-bulb.png Tip: Start doing the bibliography right from the start.

  • As soon as you use a text, include it !
  • You may learn how to use a reference manager, although for a typical master thesis you also can do it "by hand".

Citations

You will have to respect a given norm. In some institutions you can choose, in others you will have to comply. See the citation article for some links that might help you.

The presentation

Do not forget to prepare your presentation.

Time is usually very limited, so stick to the essential !

(1) Make sure to present the essential things only
  • Your introduction should be as short as possible (no mumbling about how you found your subject and how your thesis changed your life and the one of your dog or cat). Just state the objective (main goal and big question) of your thesis
  • Then present the research questions and the results. Make sure to arrange this part according to standards observed for your research type. E.g. in experimental psychology you'd present hypothesis, materials, results, discussion.
  • Discuss some outlook
  • End with a stunning conclusion, do not finish mumbling...
(2) Plan a test run with some friends

Ask them to tell you what wasn't clear

(3) Prepare the delivery

Once you feel that the contents are ok, you will have to deliver in time and with a minimum of style. The only way to get this right is to repeat the presentation using your voice at least 3 times (looking at the slides and mumbling will not do).

Here is a typical talk menu in french: Presentation-menu-fr.png