Methodology tutorial - qualitative data acquisition methods: Difference between revisions

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== Sampling strategies in qualitative research ==
== Sampling strategies in qualitative research ==


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Often you only work with 1-2 big cases (i.e. classes, organizations)
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Often you only work with 1-2 big cases (i.e. classes, organizations).
The reason is that qualitative analysis is highly labor intensive


** Qualitative analysis is highly labor intensive
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] But within each case you also have to think about sampling !.
 
Let's look at and example: A innovation researcher when looking at organizations may interact with various people and study/observe various processes:
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] But within each case you also have to think about sampling !
* informants within the organization
 
* external experts (domain/subject experts/practitioners)
example: organizational study (innovation research)
* clients and other interacting organizations
 
* observed processes (e.g. workflow analysis)
** informants within the organization
* texts (e.g. written decisions, files, ...)
** external experts (domain/subject experts/practitioners)
** clients and other interacting organizations
** observed processes (e.g. workflow analysis)
** texts (e.g. written decisions, files, ...)
 
example: impact of an initiative on a living area (e.g. publicly accessible computer
rooms)
 
** external decision makers and interest groups
** organized local groups (e.g. parent’s associations)
** population of the area
** events and behaviors associated with this initiative
 
[[Image:book-research-design-181.png]] Sampling is often multi-stage (by waves)
 
** Research in progress can show new phenomena that need investigation and therefore
sampling


An other example: Impact of an initiative on a public space (e.g. publicly accessible computer rooms)
* external decision makers and interest groups
* organized local groups (e.g. parent’s associations)
* population of the area
* events and behaviors associated with this initiative


[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Sampling is often multi-stage (by waves): Research in progress can show new phenomena that need investigation and therefore sampling


=== General sampling strategies ===
=== General sampling strategies ===
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Usage
Usage
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
 
Broad categories
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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|}
|}


[[Image:book-research-design-182.png]] Use this big list to think about your own strategy
[[Image:icon-light-bulb.png]] Use this big list to think about your own strategy


* The are no general rule !
There are no general rules, but we can formulate a few heuristics and recommended practices !
** Use this table to think the kind of sampling you need for '' your'' research.
* Use this table to think the kind of sampling you need for ''your own'' research.
* Choose well your cases = avoid trouble later ...
* Choose well your cases = avoid trouble later ...
* ... avoid adopting a sampling-by-induction strategy (more difficult)
* Avoid adopting a sampling-by-induction strategy (more difficult)
* Look at your research questions !!
* Look at your research questions !!
** can you answer all of them (measure concepts, find causalities, etc.)
** Can you answer all of them (measure concepts, find causalities, etc.) ??
* Understand the scope of the sampling task (see next slide)
* Understand the scope of the sampling task (see also below):
** roles (functions organization),
** roles (functions organization),
** groups, organizations, institutions, ....
** groups, organizations, institutions, ....
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** ....
** ....


Advice for intra-case sampling:
; Advice for intra-case sampling:


* identify '' types of informations'' you need.
* identify '' types of informations'' you need.
* sample '' all categories'' (activities, processes, events, dates, locations, agents,
* sample '' all categories'' (activities, processes, events, dates, locations, agents, ...)
...)
* again: think about your the theory you want to produce and its scope
* again: think about your the theory you want to produce and its scope
* reduce your ambitions (research questions) when your sampling lists get to large
* reduce your ambitions (research questions) when your sampling lists get to large
* you always can add cases (snow-ball strategy)
* you always can add cases (snow-ball strategy)


Advice for inter-case sampling:
; Advice for inter-case sampling:
 
It’s a good strategy to adopt a kind of similar systems design:
* It’s a good strategy to adopt a kind of similar systems design:
* Select similar cases that have a nice variance within your operative variables
** select similar cases that have a nice variance within your operative variables
(dependant and independent).
(dependant and independent)
* E.g. to test the variants of e-learning design, select relatively similar domains, or relatively similar target populations.
** E.g. to test an e-learning design, select relatively similar domains, or relatively
* You then can add contrasted (extreme) cases to test the external validity (generalization potential) of your analysis
similar target population
* You then can add contrasted (extreme) cases to test the external validity
(generalization potential) of your analysis


Remember: qualitative research is very expensive
Remember: qualitative research is very expensive
 
* 2-3 big cases (e.g. courses, schools, designs) are enough for a master thesis
** 2-3 big cases (e.g. courses, schools, designs) are enough for a master thesis
* 12-30 cases within all cases (e.g. people, processes) are enough for a master thesis
** 12-30 cases within all cases (e.g. people, processes) are enough for a master thesis
* else complete qualitative strategies with quantitative approaches.
** else complete qualitative strategies with quantitative
 
 


== Data gathering techniques (empirical measures) ==
== Data gathering techniques (empirical measures) ==


Overview:
Here is an overview of various data gathering techniques:


{| border="1"
{| border="1"
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observation
observation
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Global observation of an organization, culture, activity, etc.see:
Global observation of an organization, culture, activity, etc. See:
[book-research-design.htm#50470929_30648 See Observation, transcription and text analysis]
[[#Observation, transcription and text analysis|#Observation, transcription and text analysis]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
examineactivities
examine activities
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
transcriptions of natural activities
transcriptions of natural activities
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
In-depth study of activities and interactions in contextsee:
In-depth study of activities and interactions in context.
[book-research-design.htm#50470929_30648 See Observation, transcription and text analysis]
See: [[#Observation, transcription and text analysis|#Observation, transcription and text analysis]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
provokedactivities
provoked activities
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
transcriptions <br /> of provoked<br /> activities
transcriptions <br /> of provoked<br /> activities
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
In-depth study of formal activities you engage somebody insee:
In-depth study of formal activities you engage somebody in.
[book-research-design.htm#50470929_30648 See Observation, transcription and text analysis]
See: [[#Observation, transcription and text analysis|#Observation, transcription and text analysis]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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texts
texts
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Written traces of activities (e.g. decision protocols, guidelines)See:
Written traces of activities (e.g. decision protocols, guidelines)
[book-research-design.htm#50470929_30648 See Observation, transcription and text analysis]
See: [[#Observation, transcription and text analysis|#Observation, transcription and text analysis]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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interviews
interviews
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Extraction of information in peoples headsee: [book-research-design.htm#50470929_19175 See
Extraction of information in peoples headsee: See [[#Interviews|Interviews]]
Interviews].
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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|}
|}


=== Different roles for qualitative technology ===


[[Imaage:icon-warning.png]] Don’t confuse the "technique" and "approach" levels when you talk about qualitative methods. Qualitative methods can just refer to specific data-gathering techniques but also to more global designs.


=== Different roles for qualitative technology ===
In the following table we show the different status of qualitative data acquisition technology in quantitative vs. qualitative research.
 
[[Image:book-research-design-183.png]] Don’t confuse the technique and approach levels
when you talk about qualitative methods


{| border="1"
{| border="1"
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
===  ===
 
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" |
Some different objectives and preferred techniquesfor different kinds methodologies
Some different objectives and preferred techniquesfor different kinds methodologies (approaches)
(approaches)
|-
|-
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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examineactivities
examineactivities
| rowspan="2" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="2" colspan="1" |
* quick studies of work activities and interactions to prepare initial design
* quick studies of work activities and interactions to prepare initial design specifications
specifications
* systematic usability studies
* systematic usability studies
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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ask
ask
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
* fixed questions to systematically gather relatively complex attitudes, opinions and
* fixed questions to systematically gather relatively complex attitudes, opinions and descriptions of behaviors
descriptions of behaviors
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
* open interviews or semi-structured interviews to engage subjects in
* open interviews or semi-structured interviews to engage subjects in
|}
|}


* This table is not very complete, but it shows that qualitative designs are more geared
This table is not very complete, but it shows that qualitative designs are more geared
towards going in depth whereas mostly quantitative designs put more emphasis on scale or
towards going in depth whereas mostly quantitative designs put more emphasis on scale or
preparation of quantitative studies, ...
preparation of quantitative studies, ...


== Observation, transcription and text analysis ==
== Observation, transcription and text analysis ==


=== Observation of behaviors in natural contexts ===
=== Observation of behaviors in natural contexts ===
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** notational conventions after session notes
** notational conventions after session notes
** a journaling technique
** a journaling technique
* Example:{| border="1"
* Example:
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
{| border="1"! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Marks
Marks
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
! rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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** mediated user-user interactions
** mediated user-user interactions
* In addition, screen activities can be filmed or electronically registered
* In addition, screen activities can be filmed or electronically registered
** give extra informations, also allows to register non CMC-mediated user-user
** give extra informations, also allows to register non CMC-mediated user-user communication
communication


Data
;Data


* can be enormous amounts
Analysis of transcriptions take an enormous amount of time
* Analysis of transcriptions take an enormous amount of time
* either you have to spend days/weeks for manual coding (preferably using specialized software adapted to the media type)
** either you have to spend days/weeks for manual coding (preferably using specialized
* or you need high technical skills to write scripts to reduce and "massage" data
software adapted to the media type)
** or you need high technical skills to write scripts to reduce and "massage" data
* Likely you also have to invent your own data analysis and visualization techniques
* Be sure to search the literature for coding and analysis techniques !


Advice
Likely you also have to invent your own data analysis and visualization techniques. Be sure to search the literature for coding and analysis techniques !


* think very hard about the concepts you need to measure !
;Advice


* Think very hard about the concepts you need to measure !
* Be as superficial as possible, e.g. use quantitative data reduction techniques if you can find out how to do so.
=== Elicitation of cognitive processes ===


* The “'' thinking aloud'' ” method combined with protocol analysis (Ericsson &amp; Simon, 1983) is a popular method in cognitive science and expert system design
* Used to collect relatively "objective" data about thinking processes, problem solving in particular.


=== Elicitation of cognitive processes ===
There can be important experimentation effects:
* ex-post rationalization of behavior,
* analytical thinking instead of case-based/pattern matching
* influence of experimenter
* subject may become silent and confused ...


* The “'' thinking aloud'' ” method combined with protocol analysis (Ericsson &amp; Simon,
Basic principle: Users are given tasks and are asked to think aloud what they do.
1983) is a popular method in cognitive science and expert system design
* Used to collect relatively "objective" data about thinking processes, problem solving in
particular.
* There can be important experimentation effects:
** ex-post rationalization of behavior,
** analytical thinking instead of case-based/pattern matching
** influence of experimenter
** subject may become silent and confused ...
* Basic principle: Users are given tasks and are asked to think aloud what they do.


The Ecrisson &amp; Simon procedure for elicitation cognitive processes
The Ecrisson &amp; Simon procedure for elicitation cognitive processes
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* Testers ask questions (clarification, opinion, ...),
* Testers ask questions (clarification, opinion, ...),
* ‘Push’ subjects in certain directions.
* ‘Push’ subjects in certain directions.


=== Transcriptions of user activities in semi-formal situations ===
=== Transcriptions of user activities in semi-formal situations ===


[[Image:book-research-design-185.png]] Usually audio or video recordings
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Usually audio or video recordings


* Take time to analyze (like above) !
* Take time to analyze (like above) !
* Ask permission to use a tape-recorder or a camera if you do this in a work context
* Ask permission to use a tape-recorder or a camera if you do this in a work context
* Can also modify user’s behaviors
* Can also modify user’s behaviors
(more details to follow in a next version, sorry ...)


=== Texts ===
=== Texts ===


* Text analysis (other than "texts" mentioned above) concerns artifacts like official
* Text analysis (other than "texts" mentioned above) concerns artifacts like official documents, student/teacher paper productions, etc.
documents, student/teacher paper productions, etc.
* Don’t ask for everything when you start your research
* Don’t ask for everything when you start your research
** People don’t always like to give away written traces of their activities, and therefore
** People don’t always like to give away written traces of their activities, and therefore you need to establish a confidence relation first.
you need to establish a confidence relation first.
* There is a large amount of analysis techniques (not covered in these tutorials for the moment)
* There are a large amount of analysis techniques
** will not be covered in this short "crash course".


== Interviews ==


 
There exist several kinds of interview types, each has its purpose.
== Interviews ==


{| border="1"
{| border="1"
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| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Initial studies
Initial studies
* See [book-research-design.htm#50470929_28065 See The information interview]
* See [[#The information interview|#The information interview]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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* subjects are allowed to "talk" and therefore to think
* subjects are allowed to "talk" and therefore to think
* difficult to analyze
* difficult to analyze
* See [book-research-design.htm#50470929_33345 See The semi-structured interview]
* See [[#The semi-structured interview|The semi-structured interview]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
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* better comparison
* better comparison
* faster than semi-structured
* faster than semi-structured
* See [book-research-design.htm#50470929_15735 See The structured interview]
* See [[#The structured interview|The structured interview]]
|-
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
Interviews with a fixed list of questions and closedquestions(see quantitative modules)
Interviews with a fixed list of questions and closed questions(see quantitative modules)
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" colspan="1" |
list of questions with response items
list of questions with response items
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* needs good understanding of the studied phenomenon
* needs good understanding of the studied phenomenon
|}
|}




=== General advice for interviews ===
=== General advice for interviews ===


[[Image:book-research-design-186.png]] Interviewing is a well documented technique (in
[[Image:icon-hand-right.png]] Interviewing is a well documented technique (in most textbooks)
most textbooks)


Interviewees (in natural settings) don’t have time to loose
Interviewees (in natural settings) don’t have time to loose


* focus on the'' essential''
* focus on the''essential''
* check if some information is available in other forms (e.g. written memos, rules, etc.)
* check if some information is available in other forms (e.g. written memos, rules, etc.)
* learn the '' “jargon”''
* learn the ''jargon''
* consult all other available information before the interview
* consult all other available information before the interview


=== The information interview ===
=== The information interview ===


* Possible Objectives:
; Possible Objectives
** determine your research goals, e.g. you need to find out if your potential research
* determine your research goals, e.g. you need to find out if your potential research
subject is of any interest, etc. ;
subject is of any interest, etc. ;
** prepare your research questions ;
* prepare your research questions ;
** prepare field research, e.g. you need information about the workings of an
* prepare field research, e.g. you need information about the workings of an
organization, process, procedure, about people and their roles, etc.
organization, process, procedure, about people and their roles, etc.
* Find '' the'' person:
 
** often you may first interview '' a domain specialist ;''
; Find ''the'' person:
** sometimes'' any person '' that has knowledge on your subject area '' and time '' will
* often you may first interview '' a domain specialist ;''
* sometimes'' any person '' that has knowledge on your subject area '' and time '' will
also do'' .''
also do'' .''
* In "natural contexts" avoid to "over-tax" key actors:
* In "natural contexts" avoid to "over-tax" key actors: You must make sure that key actors will agree to in-depth semi-structured interviews in later stages, interviewing twice may not please some of them.
** You must make sure that key actors will agree to in-depth semi-structured interviews in
later stages, interviewing twice may not please some of them.
 
 


=== The structured interview ===
=== The structured interview ===
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* The questionnaire needs a '' lot of preparation !''
* The questionnaire needs a '' lot of preparation !''
** make sure that each concept can reliably be measured and lead to valid indicators.
** make sure that each concept can reliably be measured and lead to valid indicators.
* To prepare the questionnaire you ought to do 2-3 semi-structured interviews (or at least
* To prepare the questionnaire you ought to do 2-3 semi-structured interviews (or at least some information interviews)
some information interviews)
* In addition, make '' pre-tests'' with 2-3 subjects in order to be sure that your questions are understandable
* In addition, make '' pre-tests'' with 2-3 subjects in order to be sure that your
questions are understandable
* You have to think about analysis methods beforehand
* You have to think about analysis methods beforehand
** manual or machine coding?
** manual or machine coding?
Line 563: Line 515:
** etc.
** etc.
* .... Consider surveys with closed response items as cheaper alternative !
* .... Consider surveys with closed response items as cheaper alternative !


=== The semi-structured interview ===
=== The semi-structured interview ===
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* Concurrently, this inteview type allows the interviewee to '' reason.''
* Concurrently, this inteview type allows the interviewee to '' reason.''


[[Image:book-research-design-187.png]] General remarks
; General remarks
* (again): ''preparation'' !
* (again): ''read your research questions'' and identify the ones that need interviewing


* (again): '' preparation'' !
;Usual structure of the interview - 2 layers
* (again): '' read your research questions'' and identify the ones that need interviewing
 
[[Image:book-research-design-188.png]] Usual structure of the interview: 2 layers


* prepare a '' list of general question''
* prepare a '' list of general question''
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** during the interview you must "probe" the interviewee for all those points
** during the interview you must "probe" the interviewee for all those points


[[Image:book-research-design-189.png]] Interviewer’s behavior
; Interviewer’s behavior
 
* '' Let the person talk !!!''... and cover your questions and probes later !
* '' Let the person talk !!! ''<br /> .... and cover your questions and probes later !
* It is important that the interviewee is allowed to develop chains of reasoning (e.g.
* it is important that the interviewee is allowed to develop chains of reasoning (e.g.
perceptions of causality, associations between concepts, etc.).
perceptions of causality, associations between concepts, etc.).
* The goal is to extract "meaning", i.e. so called "deep" or "think" structures.
* The goal is to extract "meaning", i.e. so called "deep" or "think" structures.


[[Image:book-research-design-190.png]] Carefully word your questions
; Carefully word your questions


* Watch out for sensitive questions
* Watch out for sensitive questions
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* in many situations, it is useful to present the interviewee with a scenario and use it
* in many situations, it is useful to present the interviewee with a scenario and use it
also to let people reflect on more general issues
also to let people reflect on more general issues


[[Category: research methodologies]]
[[Category: research methodologies]]
[[Category: tutorials]]
[[Category: tutorials]]

Revision as of 16:08, 7 October 2008

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Qualitative data acquisition methods

This is part of the methodology tutorial (see its table of contents).

In educational technology (as well in most other social sciences) one works with a variety of qualitative data.

Since qualitative research most often focuses on "rich" data, sampling is more difficult than for quantitative research and we shall start with this issue.

Sampling strategies in qualitative research

Icon-hand-right.png Often you only work with 1-2 big cases (i.e. classes, organizations). The reason is that qualitative analysis is highly labor intensive

Icon-hand-right.png But within each case you also have to think about sampling !. Let's look at and example: A innovation researcher when looking at organizations may interact with various people and study/observe various processes:

  • informants within the organization
  • external experts (domain/subject experts/practitioners)
  • clients and other interacting organizations
  • observed processes (e.g. workflow analysis)
  • texts (e.g. written decisions, files, ...)

An other example: Impact of an initiative on a public space (e.g. publicly accessible computer rooms)

  • external decision makers and interest groups
  • organized local groups (e.g. parent’s associations)
  • population of the area
  • events and behaviors associated with this initiative

Icon-hand-right.png Sampling is often multi-stage (by waves): Research in progress can show new phenomena that need investigation and therefore sampling

General sampling strategies

Miles & Huberman (1994:28)

Type of case

Usage

Broad categories

maximal variation

will give better scope to your result s
(but needs more complex models !!)

major strategies

homogeneous

provides better focus and conclusions will be "safer" since it will be easier to identify explaining variables and to test relations

critical

exemplify a theory with a "natural" example

according to theory,
i.e. your research questions

will give you better guarantees that you will be able to answer your questions ....

confirming / infirming

test the limits of an explanation

validation

extremes and deviant cases

test the boundaries of your explanations, seek new adventures

typical

Show what is “normal” or “mean” or "typical"

intense

complete a quantitative study with an in-depth study

specialization

according to dimension

Study of particular phenomena

“snow ball”

According to information received during study

inductive approach

“opportune”

Follow new “leads”

all

(rarely possible)

representativeness

quota

selection of subgroups

according to reputation

recommendations of experts

comparative method

according to operative variables

according to criteria

according to criteria you want to study

convenient

those who are willing ...

bad

polititical

Exclusion/inclusion for political reasons

Icon-light-bulb.png Use this big list to think about your own strategy

There are no general rules, but we can formulate a few heuristics and recommended practices !

  • Use this table to think the kind of sampling you need for your own research.
  • Choose well your cases = avoid trouble later ...
  • Avoid adopting a sampling-by-induction strategy (more difficult)
  • Look at your research questions !!
    • Can you answer all of them (measure concepts, find causalities, etc.) ??
  • Understand the scope of the sampling task (see also below):
    • roles (functions organization),
    • groups, organizations, institutions, ....
    • “programs”,
    • processes,
    • ....
Advice for intra-case sampling
  • identify types of informations you need.
  • sample all categories (activities, processes, events, dates, locations, agents, ...)
  • again: think about your the theory you want to produce and its scope
  • reduce your ambitions (research questions) when your sampling lists get to large
  • you always can add cases (snow-ball strategy)
Advice for inter-case sampling

It’s a good strategy to adopt a kind of similar systems design:

  • Select similar cases that have a nice variance within your operative variables

(dependant and independent).

  • E.g. to test the variants of e-learning design, select relatively similar domains, or relatively similar target populations.
  • You then can add contrasted (extreme) cases to test the external validity (generalization potential) of your analysis

Remember: qualitative research is very expensive

  • 2-3 big cases (e.g. courses, schools, designs) are enough for a master thesis
  • 12-30 cases within all cases (e.g. people, processes) are enough for a master thesis
  • else complete qualitative strategies with quantitative approaches.

Data gathering techniques (empirical measures)

Here is an overview of various data gathering techniques:

activity

medium

principal objective

look

observation

Global observation of an organization, culture, activity, etc. See: #Observation, transcription and text analysis

examine activities

transcriptions of natural activities

In-depth study of activities and interactions in context. See: #Observation, transcription and text analysis

provoked activities

transcriptions
of provoked
activities

In-depth study of formal activities you engage somebody in. See: #Observation, transcription and text analysis

study

texts

Written traces of activities (e.g. decision protocols, guidelines) See: #Observation, transcription and text analysis

ask

interviews

Extraction of information in peoples headsee: See Interviews

participate

share

Participatory observation shares research and work

Different roles for qualitative technology

Imaage:icon-warning.png Don’t confuse the "technique" and "approach" levels when you talk about qualitative methods. Qualitative methods can just refer to specific data-gathering techniques but also to more global designs.

In the following table we show the different status of qualitative data acquisition technology in quantitative vs. qualitative research.

Some different objectives and preferred techniquesfor different kinds methodologies (approaches)

method

quantitative

qualitative

look

  • preliminary work for questionnaire design
  • "Deep understanding of an institution’s or culture’s working

examineactivities

  • quick studies of work activities and interactions to prepare initial design specifications
  • systematic usability studies
  • dialogue analysis

provokedactivities

  • understanding of reasoning processes

study

  • formal content analysis
  • most often work counting or more sophisticated like LSA
  • categorization and understanding of concepts

ask

  • fixed questions to systematically gather relatively complex attitudes, opinions and descriptions of behaviors
  • open interviews or semi-structured interviews to engage subjects in

This table is not very complete, but it shows that qualitative designs are more geared towards going in depth whereas mostly quantitative designs put more emphasis on scale or preparation of quantitative studies, ...

Observation, transcription and text analysis

Observation of behaviors in natural contexts

File:Book-research-design-184.png Essential instrument for in-depth studies of cultures and/or organizations

  • Takes time and requires skills (see below)
  • Needs assessment:
    • of the researcher’s role in the organization, group, culture, ...
    • on investigation methods, research goals (in order to focus observations), etc.
  • Needs a good “field notes” technique:
    • notational conventions for sessions
    • notational conventions after session notes
    • a journaling technique
  • Example:
Marks

Usage

“...”

verbatim quotations

‘ ... ’

paraphrases

( ... )

contextual data (or researchers interpretations)

< ... >

Analytical categories ) derived from the subject’s conceptual frameworks

/ ...

Analytical categories ) derived from the researcher’s conceptual frameworks

____

time elapsed


Computer mediated transcriptions

  • ... are very popular in educational technology
  • Media: experimental artifacts, portals, CSCL, CSCW
  • Tools are sometimes rigged to register detailed user acts for research purposes
  • Types of activities observed:
    • user-machine interactions
    • mediated user-user interactions
  • In addition, screen activities can be filmed or electronically registered
    • give extra informations, also allows to register non CMC-mediated user-user communication
Data

Analysis of transcriptions take an enormous amount of time

  • either you have to spend days/weeks for manual coding (preferably using specialized software adapted to the media type)
  • or you need high technical skills to write scripts to reduce and "massage" data

Likely you also have to invent your own data analysis and visualization techniques. Be sure to search the literature for coding and analysis techniques !

Advice
  • Think very hard about the concepts you need to measure !
  • Be as superficial as possible, e.g. use quantitative data reduction techniques if you can find out how to do so.

Elicitation of cognitive processes

  • The “ thinking aloud ” method combined with protocol analysis (Ericsson & Simon, 1983) is a popular method in cognitive science and expert system design
  • Used to collect relatively "objective" data about thinking processes, problem solving in particular.

There can be important experimentation effects:

  • ex-post rationalization of behavior,
  • analytical thinking instead of case-based/pattern matching
  • influence of experimenter
  • subject may become silent and confused ...

Basic principle: Users are given tasks and are asked to think aloud what they do.

The Ecrisson & Simon procedure for elicitation cognitive processes

  • Experimenter is completely silent...
  • ...except when subject is ± 15s silent
  • “Keep talking”

Boren & Ramey: Usability testing practice is different:

  • Subjects asks for help,
  • Testers ask questions (clarification, opinion, ...),
  • ‘Push’ subjects in certain directions.

Transcriptions of user activities in semi-formal situations

Icon-hand-right.png Usually audio or video recordings

  • Take time to analyze (like above) !
  • Ask permission to use a tape-recorder or a camera if you do this in a work context
  • Can also modify user’s behaviors

Texts

  • Text analysis (other than "texts" mentioned above) concerns artifacts like official documents, student/teacher paper productions, etc.
  • Don’t ask for everything when you start your research
    • People don’t always like to give away written traces of their activities, and therefore you need to establish a confidence relation first.
  • There is a large amount of analysis techniques (not covered in these tutorials for the moment)

Interviews

There exist several kinds of interview types, each has its purpose.

Type

composition

function / advantages

Information interviews

check-list

Initial studies

Semi-structured interviews

list of questions and “probes”

Main interview type in qualitative research

Structured (directive)interviews

list of fixed questions

Semi-quantitative studies:

Interviews with a fixed list of questions and closed questions(see quantitative modules)

list of questions with response items

Quantitative studies

  • fast interview
  • reliable
  • easy to analyze
  • needs good understanding of the studied phenomenon


General advice for interviews

Icon-hand-right.png Interviewing is a well documented technique (in most textbooks)

Interviewees (in natural settings) don’t have time to loose

  • focus on theessential
  • check if some information is available in other forms (e.g. written memos, rules, etc.)
  • learn the jargon
  • consult all other available information before the interview

The information interview

Possible Objectives
  • determine your research goals, e.g. you need to find out if your potential research

subject is of any interest, etc. ;

  • prepare your research questions ;
  • prepare field research, e.g. you need information about the workings of an

organization, process, procedure, about people and their roles, etc.

Find the person
  • often you may first interview a domain specialist ;
  • sometimes any person that has knowledge on your subject area and time will

also do .

  • In "natural contexts" avoid to "over-tax" key actors: You must make sure that key actors will agree to in-depth semi-structured interviews in later stages, interviewing twice may not please some of them.

The structured interview

  • Definition: A list of questions and open responses (usually a few sentences)
    • Useful to systematically gather comparable informations about relatively complex

variables (beliefs, behaviors, etc.)

  • The questionnaire needs a lot of preparation !
    • make sure that each concept can reliably be measured and lead to valid indicators.
  • To prepare the questionnaire you ought to do 2-3 semi-structured interviews (or at least some information interviews)
  • In addition, make pre-tests with 2-3 subjects in order to be sure that your questions are understandable
  • You have to think about analysis methods beforehand
    • manual or machine coding?
    • code books
    • cost estimations, remember that any sort of text analysis is very costly (!)
    • etc.
  • .... Consider surveys with closed response items as cheaper alternative !

The semi-structured interview

  • This is preferred type of interview in typical qualitative research.
  • You will get answers for your questions.
  • Concurrently, this inteview type allows the interviewee to reason.
General remarks
  • (again): preparation !
  • (again): read your research questions and identify the ones that need interviewing
Usual structure of the interview - 2 layers
  • prepare a list of general question
  • for each of these questions you make a "secret" list of points ( "probes" ) that

need to be covered

    • during the interview you must "probe" the interviewee for all those points
Interviewer’s behavior
  • Let the person talk !!!... and cover your questions and probes later !
  • It is important that the interviewee is allowed to develop chains of reasoning (e.g.

perceptions of causality, associations between concepts, etc.).

  • The goal is to extract "meaning", i.e. so called "deep" or "think" structures.
Carefully word your questions
  • Watch out for sensitive questions
    • put them at the end
    • if you are lucky the subject will mention them anyhow.
  • Use indirect questions that project the interviewee into a situation
  • Example:
    • don’t ask: “do you work well with person A ?”
    • but: “do you have frequent contacts with A”, “how do you coordinate”, etc.
    • don’t ask: "do you know how to use this software" ?
    • but: "how frequently do you use this software", etc. ?
  • When appropriate, ask about concrete cases
    • e.g. present a hypothetical case and ask how they solve it.
    • e.g. (in usability testing) give them tasks to solve

En résumé:

  • rather ask what people do than what they feel
  • in many situations, it is useful to present the interviewee with a scenario and use it

also to let people reflect on more general issues